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^LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. J 

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| UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. J 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OP 



SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 



BY 

ANDREW BURTT, A.M. 

PRINCIPAL OP RALSTON SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH; AUTHOR OF " BURTT'S ELEMENTS OF ENQLI8H 
QBAMMAR," AND " BURTT'S PRACTICAL GRAMMAR." 



PITTSBURGH: 

PUBLISHED BY A. II. ENGLISH & CO. 

98 FOURTH AVENUE. 
1873. 



3^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 

A. H. ENGLISH & CO. 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



- ™:cse:t & cc. 



PREFACE. 



It has been the aim in the preparation of this work to pre- 
sent the learner with a plain, concise, and well-arranged 
treatise on the elementary principles of the English language ; 
care having been taken to use the simplest expressions appro- 
priate to the subject, and to avoid all difficult constructions 
and unnecessary distinctions. 

It is especially intended to be used as an introduction to 
the author's Practical Grammar ; but inasmuch as it contains 
the plainer and more practical parts of all the divisions of 
the subject, it will be found to be well adapted to serve alone, 
as the text-book on grammar, for such classes as can spend 
but a short time in the study of that branch of knowledge : 
for it will be better for such to complete this small work, 
than to study a part only of a larger one. 

The attention of teachers is invited to some peculiarities of 
the work, which the practical operations of the school-room 
have proved to be of prime importance. 

DESCRIPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 

The different subjects are introduced with brief descriptions, 
each ending with the name of the thing described, followed 
by examples and illustrations ; then the same matter is ex- 
pressed by definitions, each commencing with the term de- 
fined. This variety tends to give the pupils the very proper 
impression that understanding the thought is of much more 
importance than learning the form of words by which the 
thought is expressed. It also gives them variety of expres- 



4 PREFACE. 

sion and facility in the use of language, which should be the 
principal object in the study of grammar. 

MODELS FOR GIVING ANSWERS AND EXAMPLES. 

The answers which follow some of the questions in the text 
are intended as models, to suggest appropriate forms for ex- 
pressing answers and giving examples. Answers in recitations 
should always be given in sentences; a word or a phrase 
should not be accepted as an answer. Careful attention to 
this will rapidly increase the pupil's ability to use correct 
language. 

The following, from the Practical Grammar, being equally 
applicable to this, is inserted here. 

MODELS AND EXERCISES. 

The models and exercises for recitation should receive 
careful attention. They will be found to be useful in both 
study and recitation. In most cases the pupil should be re- 
quired to use them just as they are given, especially at first; 
after he has become familiar with them, he should be encour- 
aged to form models of his own. To enable the pupil to 
acquire the ability to do this is one of the main objects of this 
method of recitation. The teacher should therefore impress 
upon the mind of the learner that he will have fully mastered 
the subject only when he can dispense with the formulas of 
the book to substitute others of his own framing. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

According to the models for parsing here given, the pupil 
gives the classification and properties of each word, without 
further explanation or definition. Experienced teachers are 
well aware that the use of what is known as the long method 
of parsing is a great waste of time, as the pupil repeats the 
definitions hundreds of times after they are perfectly learned. 
These are better omitted in the forms, the pupil being re- 
quired, during the parsing, to answer such questions as the 
teacher may ask to ascertain whether the meaning of each 
term is understood or not. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE. 

Language, 7 

Divisions of, 8 

English Grammar, 9 

Sentences, 10 

Classification and Definitions of, 11 

Elements of Words, . . 12 

Oral Sounds, 13 

Letters, . .14 

Syllables and Accent, 20 

Words, 21 

Classification of, . . . . . . . .22 

Rules for Spelling, 25 

Parts of Speech Defined, . . . ... 29 

Subject and Verb, . 31 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Noun, 32 

Classification and Definitions of, 34 

Properties of, 35 

Gender, 35 

Person, 37 

Number, 39 

Relations and Case, 42 

Models and Examples for Parsing, 46 

The Pronoun, 48 

Classifications and Definitions of, 49 

Personal, 51 

Relative, 52 

Interrogative and Definitive, 54 

Declension of, 5Q 

Models and Examples for Parsing, 59 

The Adjective, 60 

Classification and Definitions of, . . ... . .60 

Comparison of, 62 

Models and Examples for Parsing, 66 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 



The Verb, 67 

Classification of, 69 

Regular and Irregular, 70 

Principal and Auxiliary, 75 

Transitive and Intransitive, 77 

Finite and Infinitive, 79 

Properties of, 80 

Mode, 81 

Tense, 83 

Person and Number, 84 

Conjugation of, 87 

Synopsis of, 97 

Models and Examples for Parsing, .... 101 

The Adverb, 103 

Definition and Classification of, 104 

Models and Examples for Parsing, 105 

The Preposition, 106 

Definition of, . . 106 

Models and Examples for Parsing, .... 107 

The Conjunction, 108 

Definition and Classification of, 108 

Models and Examples for Parsing, 109 

The Interjection, 109 

Definition and Classification of, 109 

Models and Examples for Parsing, . . . . 110 

The Expletive, Ill 

Words used as Different Parts of Speech, . . 112 

Rules of Syntax, 113 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The Proposition Defined and Analyzed . . . .116 

Sentences, 122 

Elements of, 122 

Diagrams and Models for Analysis, .... 126 
Substantive Phrases and Clauses Parsed, . . . 137 

Eules for Capital Letters, 139 

False Syntax, .140 

Rules and Examples for Correcting, .... 140 

Punctuation, 155 

Examples for Parsing and Analysis, ... 160 



INTRODUCTION. 



Article 1. Of Language. 

People think with their minds. What they think 
is called thoughts. 

They make their thoughts known to each other. 
That which is used to make thoughts known is called 
language. 

That by or through which anything is done is called 
a medium. The medium for making thoughts known 
is language. 

To make known is to express. The making known, 
or that which makes known, is called expression. 

2. Definitions. 

Language is a medium for the expression of thought. 

Medium is the way by or through which anything 
is done. 

Expression is the act of making known, or that 
which makes known. In grammar, expression is used 
as a general name for a word or a group of words. 

The pupils should be required to answer with sentences; a word or a phrase 
should not be accepted as an answer. 

Questions.— What do people do with their minds ? Ans. — People 
think with their minds. What general name is given to what they 
think? Ans.— What they think is called thoughts. What do 
people do with their thoughts ? Ans.— People make their thoughts 
known to each other. What is that with which they make their 
thoughts known called? Ans. — That with which they make their 



8 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

thoughts known is called language. What name is given to that 
by or through which anything is done? To make known is what? 
What is the making known, or that which makes known called ? 

Define language. Define medium. Define expression. How is 
it used in grammar? Ans. — In grammar, the term expression ia 
used to mean a word or a group of words. 



3. Divisions of Language. 

Language for the most part is of two kinds, called 
spoken language and written language. 

Language uttered by the human voice is called 
spoken language. 

Language written or printed is called written lan- 
guage. 

Languages take their names from the countries 
which use them. The language used in the United 
States is called the English language. It is so called, 
because it was first used by the English people. 

There are many languages in use in the world; as, 
the French language, used by the people of France ; the 
German language, used by the people of Germany ; the 
Chinese language, used by the people of China ; &c. 

It is supposed that there are about two thousand 
languages in use in the world. 

A language which is now in use is called a living 
language. A language which was used long ago, but 
is not now used by any people, is called a dead lan- 
guage. The Latin, the Greek, and the Hebrew are 
dead languages. 

*' 4. Definitions. 

There are two principal divisions of language, called 
spoken language and written language. 

Spoken language consists of oral sounds used to 
express thought. 



LANGUAGE. 9 

Oral sounds are sounds made by the human voice. 

Written language consists of a system of letters 
used to represent spoken language. 

Letters are marks or characters used to form written 
language. They are generally made with a pen or 
with types. 

Questions. — What division is made of language? Ans. — Lan- 
guage is divided into spoken language and written language. Of 
what does spoken language consist? Ans. — Spoken language con- 
sists of oral sounds used to express thought. Of what does written 
language consist ? To which division does printed matter belong ? 
What language is used in our country ? Why is it called the Eng- 
lish language ? Name some other languages and tell what nations 
use them. How many languages are there supposed to be in the 
world ? What is a language now in use called ? What is a lan- 
guage not now in use called? 

What are the principal divisions of language? Define spoken 
language. Oral sounds. Written language. Letters. How are 
letters generally made ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Definitions. 

That study which teaches the correct use of the 
English language is called English Grammar. 

Educated persons use the language correctly. We 
learn by the study of grammar to use the language as 
good scholars use it. 

English Grammar is that branch of science which 
teaches the correct use of the English language. 

We use the language when we speak or write. 

Science is knowledge properly arranged. 

The standard of language is the custom of good 
speakers and writers. 



10 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Questions. — What study teaches the correct use of the English 
language ? Who use the language correctly ? What do we learn 
by the study of grammar? What is English grammar? What is 
science? What is the standard of language? 



6. Of Sentences. 

In expressing our thoughts, we tell something, ask 
something, or command something to be done. A 
group of words which does one of these makes sense, 
and is called a sentence. 

To tell something is to express a declaration. 

To ask something is to express an interrogation. 

To command something is to express a command. 

A sentence which expresses a declaration is called a 
declarative sentence. 

A sentence which expresses an interrogation is called 
an interrogative sentence. 

A sentence which expresses a command is called an 
imperative sentence. 

Declaration, interrogation, and command are senten- 
tial properties; and a sentence must contain one of 
them, but it may contain more than one. 

7. Definitions. 

A sentence is a group of words which makes com- 
plete sense. 

Complete sense is made when the words express a 
declaration, an interrogation, or a command. 

A declaration is an expression which tells some- 
thing. 

An interrogation is an expression which asks 
something. 

A command is an expression which orders some- 
thing to be done. 



SENTENCES. 11 

A declarative sentence is a sentence which ex- 
presses a declaration. 

An interrogative sentence is a sentence which 
expresses an interrogation. 

An imperative sentence is a sentence which ex- 
presses a command. 

Questions. — We do what in expressing our thoughts ? Ans. — In 
expressing our thoughts we tell something, ask something, or command 
something to be done. What is a group of words which contains one 
of these called ? To tell something is what ? To ask something 
is what ? To command something is what ? What name is given 
to a sentence which expresses a declaration ? What name is given 
to a sentence which expresses an interrogation? What name is 
given to a sentence which expresses a command ? Define a sen- 
tence. When do words make complete sense? What is a decla- 
ration ? What is an interrogation ? What is a command ? What 
are the sentential properties? Define a declarative sentence. 
Define an interrogative sentence. Define an imperative sentence, 

8. Models for describing Sentences. 

Beauty soon fades. 

This is a sentence, because it makes complete sense ; it is a 
declarative sentence, because it expresses a declaration. 

Question. — Why do these words make complete sense? 

Answer. — They make complete sense, because they contain a 
declaration. 

Qu. — What is a declaration ? Ans. — A declaration is something 
told. 

Qu. — What do these words tell? Ans. — They tell that beauty 
soon fades. 

What did you say? 
This is a sentence, because it makes complete sense ; it is 
an interrogative sentence, because it expresses an interroga- 
tion. 

Qu. — What is an interrogation? Ans. — An interrogation is 
something asked. 



12 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Qu. — What do these works ask ? Ans. — They ask what you did 
say. 

Speak the truth. 

This is a sentence, because it makes complete sense ; it is 
an imperative sentence, because it expresses a command. 

Qu. — Why do these words express a command? Ans. — They 
express a command, because they order us to do something. 

Qtj. — What do they command or order us to do ? Ans. — They 
command or order us to speak the truth. 

Describe the following 1 Sentences according to the Models. 

John is coming. Flowers are pretty. Stars shine. 
They study grammar. Will he go? Come with me. 
I found your book. Obey your parents. The night is 
dark. Are you afraid? Which way will we go? Mary 
is very late. They are singing. Respect your teacher. 
These apples are sweet. The sun has risen. Flowers 
bloom and die. Ellen and her sister study together. 
We saw pretty fields. Be obedient to-day. Is it time 
to go home? The leaves are falling. Which boy 
spoke aloud? My father means to sell his farm. Sing 
your sweetest song. 

9. Of Words. 

Sentences are composed of ivords. 

Words are expressions used as the signs of ideas. 

I have an idea of the color of grass; the word green 
expresses that idea. I have an idea of the object that 
gives light and heat to the earth; the word sun ex- 
presses that idea. I have an idea of the appearance 
of the sun; the word bright expresses that idea. 

Words may be either spoken or written. 

Spoken words are composed of sounds, and are per- 
ceived by the sense of hearing. 



SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 13 

Written words are composed of letters, and are per- 
ceived by the sense of seeing. 

10. Definitions. 

A word is an expression used as the sign of an idea. 

An idea is an image of something in the mind. 

A spoken word is a word uttered by the human 
voice. 

A written word is a word expressed by written 
characters, called letters. 

Questions. — Of what are sentences composed? What are words? 
Repeat the illustrations. How are words classified? What is said 
of spoken words? What is said of written words? Define a word. 
Define an idea. Define a spoken word. Define a written word. 

11. Of Oral Sounds. 

Voice consists of tone and whisper. The tones used 
in spoken language are of two kinds; those made 
with the organs of speech open, and those made with 
the organs of speech partly closed. Tones made with 
the organs of speech open are called pure tones; and 
tones made with the organs of speech partly closed 
are called obstructed tones. Whispers are sounds, but 
not tones. 

A single oral sound is called an elementary sound. 

12. Definitions. 

The sounds used in spoken language are divided 
into three kinds, called vocals, subvocals, and aspirates. 

A vocal is an oral sound which consists of a pure 
tone. 

A Hubvocal is an oral sound which consists of an 
obstructed tone. 

2 



14 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

An aspirate is an oral sound which consists of a 
whisper. 

An elementary sound is a simple oral sound. 

Questions. — Of what does voice consist? How many kinds of 
tones? How are they made? 

How are pure tones made? How are obstructed tones made? 
What is said of whispers? 

Name the three kinds of sounds used in spoken language. 
Define a vocal. Define a subvocal. Define an aspirate. Define 
an elementary sound. 



13. Of Letters. 

The elementary sounds of the language are repre- ' 
sented by letters. There are twenty-six letters; these 
taken together are called the Alphabet. 

There are three kinds of letters in common use, called 
Roman, Italic, and Script. 

Roman letters are the kind most commonly used 
in printed matter. Italic letters are sometimes used. 



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<& udec/ fo is^tAedevit 'mcwiudobft/. 



Each kind of letters has two forms, called capital and 
small. 

The small letters are those mostly used. Capital let- 
ters are larger than the small letters, and are generally 
of a different form; as A, a; B, b; C, c; D, d; &c. 
They are used for ornament and variety. 

Letters which generally represent vocal sounds are 
called vowels. 

Letters which generally represent subvocals or aspi- 
rates are called consonants. 

When letters are used in words without representing 
any sound, they are called mutes. 



SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 15 

14. Definitions. 

A letter is a character used to represent one or 
more of the sounds of spoken language. 

With respect to the sounds they represent, letters 
are of two kinds, vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter which is generally used to repre- 
sent a vocal sound. 

A consonant is a letter which is generally used to 
represent a subvocal or an aspirate sound. 

A mute is a letter used in a word without repre- 
senting any sound. 

Questions. — By what are the elementary sounds of the language 
represented? How many letters are there? What are they called 
when taken together? How many kinds of letters in common 
use? What are they called? What are the letters commonly 
used in printed matter called? What are those sometimes used 
called? What are those used to imitate manuscript called? What 
is manuscript? 

How many forms has each kind of letters? Which form is 
mostly used? What is said of capital letters? What are letters 
which represent vocal sounds called? What are letters which rep- 
resent sub vocals or aspirates called? What are letters which repre- 
sent no sound called? Define a letter. Define a vowel. A conso- 
nant. A mute. 

15. Of Sounds and Letters. 

The letters «, e, i, o, and u are vowels. All the other 
letters are consonants. 

The number of elementary sounds in the Language 
is forty-one. 

Each sound is generally represented by a single letter ; 
but in some cases two letters are used to represent one 
sound; as, th in the; and sometimes a single letter 
represents two sounds ; as, o in one. 



16 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The same letter taken twice to represent a sound is 
called a double letter ; as, 11 in sell; oo in food. 

Letters frequently represent the sounds of other let- 
ters; as, e has the sound of a in there; ph has the sound 
of/ in phrase. 

A vowel and a consonant, taken together to represent 
one sound, are called a combination; as, ti in nation. 

Two different vowels, taken together to represent one 
sound, are called a diphthong; as, ou in our. The sounds 
represented by diphthongs are double sounds, and are 
called compound vocals. 

16. Definitions. 

A double letter is the same letter, taken twice to 
represent one sound ; as, ff in puff; ee in tree. 

A combination is a vowel and a consonant, taken 
together to represent one sound; as, ti in portion; si in 
mission. 

The principal combinations are ti, si, and ci; they 
have the sound of sh; as in nation, mansion, gracious. 

A diphthong is two different vowels, taken together 
to represent a compound vocal. 

The principal diphthongs are ou, ow, oi, and oy; as 
in hour, now, coil, boy. 

Questions.— Name the vowels. What are all the other letters? 
How many elementary sounds in our language? How is each 
sound generally represented? What exceptions to this? What is 
a letter taken twice to represent one sound called? What is said 
of letters representing the sounds of other letters? What are a 
vowel and consonant representing one sound called? Give an 
example. Ex. — In the word nation, ti a vowel and a consonant 
represent one sound, and hence are a combination. What are two 
different vowels representing one sound called? What kind of 
sounds are represented by diphthongs, and what are they called ? 



SOUNDS AND LETTEES. 17 

Define a double letter. Ans. — A double letter is the same letter 
taken twice to represent one sound. Give examples. Define a 
combination. Give examples. Define a diphthong. Give examples. 

17. Sounds. 

The principal sounds of the vowels are as follows : — 

A has four sounds ; as in fate, far, fall, fat. 

E has two sounds; as in me, met. 

I has two sounds ; as in ice, it. 

O has three sounds ; as in no, do, not. 

U has three sounds ; as in use, full, up. 

The consonants have each one sound except c, q, x, 
and z. 

€ 9 q and x, have no sounds of their own ; they are 
used to represent the sounds of other letters; in some 
words c has the sound of s, as in city; in others the 
sound of k, as in can. Q is always followed by u, and 
qu has the sound of Jew, as in queen. X has the sound 
of ks; as in vex. Z has two sounds; as in zeal, azure. 

Questions. — How many sounds has a? Give examples. How 
many sounds has e? Give examples. How many sounds has if 
Give examples. How many sounds has o ? Give examples. How 
many sounds has uf Give examples. What is said of the con- 
sonants? What is said of c t Ofq? Ofx? Ofz? 

18. Table of Sounds and Letters. 

Simple Vocals. 

1. a long; as in fate. 8. i short; as in it. 

2. a grave ; as in far. 9. o long ; as in no.'*' 

3. a broad; as in fall. 10. o close; as in do. 

4. a short; as in fat. 11. o short; as in not. 

5. c long; as in me. 12. u long; as in use. 

6. e short; as in met. ' 13. u close; as in full. 

7. i long; as in ice. 14. u short; as in up. 
B 2* 



18 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Compound Yocals. 

1. oi or ©y; as in voice, boy. 

2. on or ow ; as in our, now. 

Subyocals. 

1. b; as in rob. 9. v; as in van. 

2. d; as in do. 10. w; as in we. 

3. g; as in go. 11. y; as in yes. 

4. j ; as in joy. 12. z; as in zone. 

5. 1; as in lay. 13. z; as in azure. 

6. in : as in man. 14. th ; as in the. 

7. n; as in no. 15. ng; as in song. 

8. r; as in run. 

Aspirates. 

1. f ; as in fair. 6. t; as in tin. 

2. li ; as in he. 7. ch; as in chin. 

3. li ; as in kid. 8. tli ; as in thin. 

4. p ; as in pen. 9. sli ; as in shun. 

5. s; as in so. 10. wh;a compound aspi- 

rate; as in when. 

19. Models for describing Letters and Sounds. 

It is intended in this exercise that the pupils shall ntter distinctly the elementary 
sounds in each word. 

Fan is a word containing three elements, which aref-a-n. 
f is a consonant with an aspirate sound, 
a is a vowel with its fourth or short sound. 
n is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

Tice is a word containing three elements, which are v-i-s. 

v is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

i is a vowel with its first or long sound. 

« is a consonant with the aspirate sound of s. 

e is a mute. 



SYLLABLES AND ACCENT. 19 

Green is a word containing four elements, which are g-r-e-n. 

s is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

r is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

ee is a double vowel with first or long sound of e. 

n is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

Hang is a word containing three elements, which are h-u-ng. 

li is a consonant with an aspirate sound. 

u is a vowel with its third or short sound. 

ng is a double consonant with a subvocal sound. 

Quote is a word containing four elements, which are k-w-o-t. 
q is a consonant with the aspirate sound of k. 
u is a consonant with the subvocal sound of w. 

is a vowel with its first or long sound, 
t is a consonant with an aspirate sound, 
e is a mute. 

Joyful is a word containing five elements, which are j-oy-f-u-l. 
j is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 
oy is a diphthong with its proper sound. 
f is a consonant with an aspirate sound. 
u is a vowel with its second or close sound. 

1 is a consonant with, a subvocal sound. 

There is a word containing three elements, which are th-a-r. 

th is a double consonant with a subvocal sound. 

e is a vowel with first sound of a. 

r is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

e is a mute. 

Describe the following words, according to the models. 

Fame, good, gem, wise, sing, roar, thin, quite, hymn, rough, 
ocean, youth, zero, bury, prove, would, where, lock, charms, 
that, law, town, busy, seize, reign, cube, toiler, cent, carry, 
queenly, phrase, eight, convey, text, boyhood, thinking, 
woolen, measure, careful, seizure, convey, employ, onion, 
chiming, surely, kitten, laughed, examine, quotient, giant, 
damsel, hectic, jocund, jargon, inquire, annex, aspirate, 
hyena, jewsharp, knapsack, victuals, merchant, women, 
bureau, machine, special, musician, pleasure, national, 
mechanic. 



20 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

20. Of Syllables and Accent. 

We pronounce the word man with one effort or im- 
pulse of the voice ; hence, we call man a word of one 
syllable. Manly requires two impulses of the voice; 
hence, manly is a word of two syllables. Manliness 
requires three impulses of the voice ; hence, manliness 
is a word of three syllables. 

No English words contain more than eight syllables. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable. 

A word of four or more syllables is called a poly- 
syllable. 

In pronouncing the w T ord thankful, the first syllable 
is pronounced with more force than the second. In 
pronouncing the word rejoice, the second syllable is 
pronounced with more force than the first. 

The pronouncing one or more syllables of a word 
with more force than the others is accent. In words of 
three or more than three syllables, there are frequently 
two accents, one stronger than the other. The stronger 
accent is called the primary accent, and the weaker 
accent is called the secondary accent. 

21. Definitions. 

A syllable is a word or a part of a word pronounced 
with one impulse of the voice. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as come, 
care. 

A dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as coming, 
careful. 

A trisyllable is a word of three syllables ; as repre- 
sent, carefully. 



WORDS CLASSIFIED. 21 

A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables ; 
as, correspondent, recognizing. 

Accent is stress of voice placed on certain syllables 
of a word. 

Primary Accent is the stronger of two accents oc- 
curring in the same word. 

Secondary Accent is the weaker of two accents oc- 
curring in the same word. 

Questions. — Why do we call man a word of one syllable? Why 
do we call manly a word of two syllables? Why do we call manli- 
ness a word of three syllables? What is said of English words? 

What is a word of one syllable called? What is a word of two 
syllables called? What is a word of three syllables called? What 
is a word of four or more syllables called? 

How do we pronounce the syllables in the word thankful? How 
do we pronounce the syllables in the word rejoice? What is the 
pronouncing of certain syllables with more force than others called? 
How many accents frequently occur in words of three or more 
syllables? What is the stronger accent called? What is the weaker 
accent called? 

Define a syllable. A monosyllable. A dissyllable. A trisyllable. 
A polysyllable. Define accent. Primary accent. Secondary accent. 

22. Models for Exercise. 

March is a monosyllable. 

Consent' is a dissyllable, accented on the second syllable. 

Ad'ver tise' is a trisyllable, accented on the first and the 
third syllables ; the primary or stronger accent is on the third 
syllable, and the secondary or weaker accent on the first. 

Confirmation is a polysyllable, accented on the first and 
the third syllables ; the primary or stronger accent is on the 
third syllable, and the secondary or weaker accent is on the 
first. 



22 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Describe the following words according to the models. 

Mindful, recess, custom, slaves, class, ability, primary, 
weaker, divisions, common, peculiar, brave, spelling, 
arithmetic, addition, syllable, word, accent, secondary, 
believe, fraction, recite, simple, multiplier, travel, ma- 
chine, popularity, separate, suggest, apply, clearness, 
educator, complex. 

23. Words Classified. 

A word expressed by the voice is a spoken word. 

A word expressed in written characters is a written 
word. 

Words are frequently formed from other words by 
adding letters or syllables ; as from walk we form walk- 
ing by adding the syllable ing ; from pound we form 
compound by adding the syllable com. Words so formed 
are called derivative words. Words to which no sylla- 
bles have been added are called primitive words. 

The word used as the base of a derivative word is 
called the root or radical. 

That letter or syllable which is placed before the 
radical is called a prefix. 

That which is placed after the radical is called a 
suffix. 

' 24. Definitions. 

A root or radical is a simple word from which de- 
rivative words are formed. 

A prefix is one or more syllables placed before the 
radical ; as, pre in prefix ; super in superfine. 

A suffix is one or more letters or syllables placed 
after the radical ; as, s in books; ing in building; able in 
lovable. 



WORDS CLASSIFIED. 23 

A primitive word is a simple word without prefix 
or suffix ; as, man, come, scholar. 

A derivative word is a word formed from a radical 
by adding a prefix, a suffix, or both ; as, twitrue, truth- 
ful, untruthful. 

Derivation is forming derivative words from radi- 
cals by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. 

Questions.— What is a word expressed by the voice called? 
What is a word expressed in written characters called ? How are 
words frequently formed from other words? Form a word from 
think. Form a word from pound. What are words so formed called ? 
What are words called to which no letters or syllables are added ? 

What is the word called which is used as the base of the derivative 
word? What is that which is placed before the radical called? 
What is that which is placed after the radical called ? What is the 
process of forming words from roots called ? 

Define a radical. Give an example. Ex. — In the word spelling, 
spell is the radical, because it is the part from which the word is 
formed. Define a prefix. Give an example. Ex. — In the word 
unclean, clean is the root, and un is the part placed before the root, 
hence un is a prefix. Define a suffix. Define a primitive word. 
Define a derivative word. What is derivation? 

25. Models for Exercise. 

Kind is a primitive word ; it has neither prefix nor suffix. 
Unkind is a derivative word ; hind is the root, and un is 
the prefix. 

Quickly is a derivative word ; quick is the root, and ly is 
the suffix. 

Overspreading is a derivative word ; spread is the root, 
over is the prefix, and ing is the suffix. 

Describe the following words. 

Walk, fearful, manly, robbing, book, judges, called, 
upright, cheaper, handsome, unrighteous, drawing, 
asleep, consign, measurement, enlighten, lightly, re- 



24 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

build* selling, antidote, diligently, impudent, useful- 
ness, immortal, happiness, mournfully, profanity, refer- 
ence, thoughtful, respectable, prefixes, recitation, dis- 
honest, compound, composed, children, unkind, spell- 
ing, goodness, misspend, stronger, bondage, dusty, mis- 
conduct, beside, boyish, kingdom, asleep, unkindly, 
imprinting, beggar, irregular, forefathers, dishonesty, 
clerkship, maker, paganism, removal, exchange, against, 
indecision, transplant. 

26. Words, Simple and Compound. 

Many words are formed by uniting two or more 
words; as, mankind is formed by uniting man and 
kind; whatsoever is formed by uniting what, so, and ever. 
Words so formed are called compound words. Words 
not so formed are called simple words. 

Some compound words have the simple words of 
which they are composed, joined by a hyphen; as, 
book-keeping; others have the simple words of which 
they are composed, joined without a hyphen; as, 
something. 

27. Definitions. 

A simple word is a single word, or one which is 

not formed by uniting words ; as, man, tree, ear, noble. 

A compound word is one formed by uniting two 
or more simple words ; as, ear-ring, pear-tree, nobleman. 

A consolidated compound is one which has its 
parts joined without a hyphen; as, gentleman, mankind. 

A separable compound is one which has its parts 
joined by a hyphen ; as, barn-door, pine-apple. 

Questions.— How are many words formed? How is mankind 
formed? How is whatsoever formed? What are words so formed 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 25 

called? How are some compound words formed ? Give examples. 
How are others formed? Give examples. 

Define a simple word. Give examples. Define a compound 
word. Give examples. Define a consolidated compound. Give 
examples. Define a separable compound. Give examples. 

28. Rules for Spelling Derivative Words. 

Rule First. 

When the radical ends with silent e, the e is generally- 
omitted before a suffix commencing with a vowel ; as, curable 
from cure; loving from love; slavish from slave; smiled from 
smile. 

Exceptions. — Changeable from change; peaceable from 
peace. 

Rule Second. 

Monosyllables, ending with a consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, double the consonant before a suffix commencing 
with a vowel; as, stopping from stop; robber from rob. 

But when a diphthong or a double vowel precedes the final 
consonant, it is not doubled ; as, woolen from wool; boiling 
from boil. 

Rule Third. 

Words of more than one syllable, ending with a consonant 
preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when 
the accent of the radical is upon the last syllable ; as, com- 
pelling from compel; conferring from confer. 

If the accent is not upon the last syllable of the radical, 
the final consonant is not doubled; as, visited from visit; 
cairitalist from capital. 

X and H are never doubled. 

Rule Fourth. 

The final y of a radical, when preceded by a consonant, is 
changed into i before a suffix not beginning with i; as f ponies 
from pony; happiness from happy. 
3 



26 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Rule Fifth. 

Radicals ending in/or/e drop this ending, and take v before 
a suffix commencing with a vowel ; as, loaves from loaf; lives 
from life. 

Correct the errors in the following. 

Feelling, beefs, lazyness, permited, turkies, saleable, 
rogueish, magnettize, ponys, monies, moveing, smileing, 
peacable, lodgeings, boilling, healling, pealling, toilling, 
foollish, visitting, travelling, impeling, readding, spel- 
ing, liveing, happyness, wealthyer. 

29. Of the Parts of Speech. 

Words with respect to their meaning and use are 
divided into classes, called parts of speech. 

Words which are used as names are called nouns; 
as in the sentence, John studies grammar. John and 
grammar are nouns, because they are names. 

Words used instead of nouns are called pronouns; 
as in the sentence, John has a sister, and he loves her. 
The word he is used instead of the noun John, and the 
word her instead of the noun sister; hence they are 
pronouns. 

Words added to nouns or pronouns to qualify or 
limit their meaning are called adjectives; as in the sen- 
tence, Studious boys learn many long lessons. Studious 
qualifies the meaning of the noun boys, and many and 
long qualify the meaning of the noun lessons; hence 
they are adjectives. 

Words which express action or being of a, subject 



WORDS CLASSIFIED. 27 

are called verbs; as in the sentence, Trees grow. Grow 
expresses action of trees; hence it is a verb. In the 
sentence, The sun is bright, is expresses being of its 
subject sun; hence it is a verb. 

Questions.— How are words divided with respect to their mean- 
ing and use? What are words used as names called? Give 
examples. 

What are words used instead of nouns called? Give examples. 

What are words which are added to nouns or pronouns to qualify 
their meaning called? Give examples. 

What are words which express action or being of a subject called? 
Give examples. 

Words which are used to modify the meaning or 
sense of a verb, an ' adjective, or another adverb are 
called adverbs; as in the sentences, She sings siveetly; 
The apple is very good ; He writes tolerably well. Sweet- 
ly modifies the meaning of the verb sings; very modi- 
fies the meaning of the adjective good; tolerably modi- 
fies the meaning of the adverb well; and well modifies 
the meaning of the verb writes; hence they are adverbs. 

"Words which are used to connect words, and to show 
the relation between them are called prepositions; 
as in the sentence, John lives in Pittsburgh. In shows 
the relation between lives and Pittsburgh; hence it is a 
preposition: and the word Pittsburgh is called the 
object of the preposition in. 

The object of a preposition is a noun or a pronoun ; 
as in the sentence, Walk in virtue's path, in is a pre- 
position, and the noun path is its object. 

Words which arc used to connect words, phrases, or 



28 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

clauses are called conjunctions; as in the sentence, A 
great and good man has fallen, and connects the 
words great and good; hence it is a conjunction. In 
the sentence, He has lived in the city and in the 
country, and connects the phrases in the city and in the 
country; hence it is a conjunction. In the sentence, 
Jane studies grammar, but John studies arithmetic, but 
connects the clauses Jane studies grammar and John 
studies arithmetic; hence it is a conjunction. 

Words used to cry out, or to express some sudden 
feeling or emotion are called interjections ; as, oh, alas, 
pshaiu. 

Interjections are called independent words, because 
they do not form part of a sentence. 

Some words are used to make the expression agree- 
able to the ear, without changing the sense; such 
words are called expletives. 

Words used for agreeableness of sound are said to 
be words of euphony. 

Most expletives are used for euphony; as in the sen- 
tence, There is a strange man here, there is a word used 
for euphony only, hence it is an expletive. 

Questions.— What are words called which modify the meaning or 
sense of a verb ? Which modify the sense of an adjective ? Which 
modify the sense of an adverb ? Give examples which modify verbs. 
Ex. — In the sentence, John reads well, well modifies the meaning of 
the verb reads, hence it is an adverb. Give examples which modify 
adjectives. Give examples which modify adverbs. 

What are words which connect other words, and show the rela- 
tion between them called ? Give examples. What part of speech 
is the object of the preposition ? Give an example in which the 
object is a noun. Is a pronoun. 



REMARKS ON PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 

What are words which connect words, phrases, or clauses called? 
Give an example connecting words. Connecting phrases. Con- 
necting clauses. 

What are words which express feeling or emotion called ? Give 
examples. Why are interjections called independent words? 

For what purpose are some words used ? What are such words 
called ? For what purpose are most expletives used ? Give examples. 

30. Remarks on Parts of Speech. 

1. A part of speech may be a word or a group of words; 
as, — 

Nouns. — John, George Washington, William Henry Har- 
rison. 

Verbs. — Walk, having walked, having been walking. 
Adjectives. — Excellent, more excellent, most excellent. 

2. It is common in defining to say, a verb is a word, and, a 
noun is a word, &c. This certainly tends to confuse the 
learner, since a verb in many cases consists of two or more 
words ; and the noun and other parts of speech frequently con- 
sist of more than one word. It will be better to call each of 
these classes by the approved and long-used title of part of 
speech; as in the following definitions. 

31. Definitions. 

A part of ^*>eecli is a word or a group of words 
having ^distinct use in the sentence. 

There are nine parts of speech ; the noun, the pronoun, 
the adjective, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the con- 
junction, the interjection, and the expletive. 

A noun is a part of speech used as the name of an 
object. 

Ex. — Lions and ostriches are found in Africa. Pinks and 
roses are in the garden. Goodness and wisdom are better than 
riches. 

3* 



30 PRIMARY GRAMMAR, 

A pronoun is a part of speech used instead of a 
noun. 

Ex. — I saw you. Mary promised to lend Joseph her book, 
that he might read it. Who is it that you mean ? 

An adjective is a part of speech used to qualify or 
limit the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 

Ex. — This is a bright day. James is happy, because he is 
good. This little twig bore that large, red apple. 

A verb is a part of speech used to express action or 
being of a subject. 

Ex. — John ivent into the city. The trees are in blossom. 
The pupils have studied their lessons. 

An adverb is a part of speech used to modify the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Ex. — You should speak correctly. He lives in an extremely 
warm climate. The pupils listened very attentively. 

A preposition is a part of speech used to connect 
words, and to show the relation between them. 

Ex. — We live in the city. My brother spoke to him. His 
hat is under his arm. 

A conjunction is a part of speech used to connect 
words, phrases, or clauses. 

Ex. — The pen and the pencil are found. Your book must 
be in that room or in the hall. I will read you a story, if 
you listen. 

An interjection is a part of speech used to cry out, 
or to express unusual emotion or feeling. 

Ex. — Alas ! that great city ! Oh ! my hand is hurt ! What ! 
must you go? 



SUBJECT AND VERB. 31 

An expletive is a part of speech used for euphony. 

Ex. — There is a good spring by that tree. Work, work in 
the dull December light. They make even toil to please. 

Questions. — Define a noun. Give examples. Model.— In the sen- 
tence, Lions and ostriches are found in Africa, lions, ostriches, and 
Africa are nouns, because they are parts of speech used as names. 
Give other examples of nouns. Define a pronoun. Give exam- 
ples. Model. — In the sentence, I saw you, / and you are pronouns, 
because they are parts of speech used instead of nouns. Define 
an adjective. Give examples. Define a verb. Give examples. 
Define an adverb. Give examples. Define a preposition. Give 
examples. Define a conjunction. Give examples. Define an 
interjection. Give examples. Define an expletive. Give exam- 
ples. 

The pupils should be required to give examples not found in the text; and 
in all cases they should be given understandingly. 



32. Of the Yerb and its Subject. 

A noun or pronoun, denoting that of which a verb 
expresses action or being, is called the subject of the verb; 
as in the sentence, The horse runs; the object horse 
is that of which the verb runs expresses action ; hence 
the word horse is the subject of the verb rum. 

° bs - — Although strictly speaking, the subject is the word, 
yet the term subject is frequently used by figure of speech to 
mean the thing which the word represents ; as the sentence, 
"The verb expresses action of a subject," means that the verb 
expresses action of the thing represented by the subject. 

33. Models for Exercise. 

Pupils read. 

In tliis sentence the word read expresses action of pupils ; 
hence the noun pupils is the subject of the verb read. 



32 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

John is a farmer. 

In this sentence the verb is expresses being of John; hence 
the noun John is the subject of the verb is. 

Describe the subjects and verbs. 

John walks slowly. The grass is green. The boy 
studies diligently. Mary loves study. The cars run 
rapidly. We live with our brother. The Amazon is 
the longest river in the world. Henry found a gold 
dollar. The elephant's tusk is white. The Indians 
paint themselves. She is very beautiful. I will give 
you the pencil. Joseph has been sick. Did you see 
the cars run ? The soldier was carried to the hospital. 

Write subjects to the following verbs. 

reads. is coming. am. 

writes. are going. breaks. 

grows. may be broken. smile. 

bends. will have recited. was sold. 

Write verbs to the following subjects. 



Farmers . 


We — -. 


You . 


The men . 


Lofty trees . 


The old bird - 


The wind 


. The night dark. 


They . 


Her head , 


. The Queen Victoria 


-. Good children 



Write twelve expressions, each containing a verb and its subject. 

U. Of the Noun. 

A part of speech used as the name of an object is a 
noun. 

A noun may be the name of a sensible object; as, 
man, tree, river; or it may be the name of an ideal 
object; as, wisdom, truth, sin. 

The word noun means name. 



NOUNS. 33 

An object which may be perceived by one or more 
of the senses is a sensible object. That which we can 
think of, but cannot perceive by the senses, is an ideal 
object. 

Names which may be applied to all things of a kind 
are common nouns; as, man may be applied to all 
men ; town to all towns ; and goodness to all good acts ; 
therefore, man, town, and goodness are common nouns. 

Names which are applied to individuals are proper 
nouns ; as George Washington means a particular man ; 
Pittsburgh is a particular town ; and Amazon is a par- 
ticular river; therefore George Washington, Pittsburgh, 
and Amazon are proper nouns. 

Common nouns are general names, because they are 
applied to things of a kind in general. 

Proper nouns are particular names, because they de- 
note a particular one of a kind. 

35. Models for Exercise. 

The fire burns brightly. 

Fire is the name of an object ; and since the object can be 
perceived by the senses of sight and feeling, it is a sensible 
object. 

Time flies swiftly. 

Time is the name of an object; and since the object can 
not be perceived by any of the senses, it is an ideal object. 

Describe the names of objects. 

Mary has a new slate. The book is lost. He earned 
his dinner. Ellen loves her parents. She always tells 
the truth. The sun gives us light and heat. Spring 
will soon begin. Winter is the coldest season. The 
boy told a falsehood. The pupils study long lessons. 






34 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Where is my pencil? Give me an apple. He has 
written a copy. Will your brother let us ride on his 
sled? 

36. Definitions. 

A noun is a part of speech used as the name of an 
object; as, boy, virtue, Mary. 

Nouns are divided into two classes, called common 
nouns and proper nouns. 

A common noun is a general name ; as, man, river, 
kindness. 

A proper noun is a particular name ; as, Napoleon 
Bonaparte, New York, Nile. 

Questions.— What is a word used as the name of an object called? 
What is a sensible object? Name three sensible objects, and tell 
by which of the senses they are distinguished. Name three ideal 
objects. What kind of nouns are names that can be applied to all 
things of a kind? What kind of nouns are names that are applied 
to individuals ? Give examples of each class. Why are general 
names called common nouns ? Why are particular names called 
proper nouns ? 

Define a noun. Into what classes are nouns divided ? Define a 
common noun. Define a proper noun. 

37. Models for Exercise. 

John has studied his lesson. 

John is the name of an object, hence it is a noun ; since it 
is the name of an individual, it is a proper noun. 

Lesson is the name of an object, hence it is a noun; since 
it is a general name, it is a common noun. 

Describe the nouns in the following' sentences. 

Joseph knew his brethren. Most boys love to play. 
My father bought the man's farm. He rode in the cars 
to New York. The book lay before him on the table. 
Washington was a truly great man. Large, deep rivers 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 35 

float long, heavy rafts. The moon and the stars were 
shining. George and his sister are coming to the 
city. Wealth often produces misery. 

38. Properties of Parts of Speech. 

Some of the parts of speech have properties. 

The property of a part of speech is a peculiar mean- 
ing which belongs to it; as, book denotes but one book; 
and books denotes more than one book, therefore there 
is a property of the noun to denote the number of ob- 
jects which it represents. 

Working means present action; worked means past 
action, therefore there is a property of the verb to de- 
note the time of the action it represents. 

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs have 
properties ; the other parts of speech have no properties. 

Questions. — "What is said of some of the parts of speech ? What 
is meant by the property of a part of speech? Give the first ex- 
ample. Give the second example. Which parts of speech have 
properties ? Which parts of speech have no properties ? 

39. Gender, 

John denotes an object of the male sex ; Mary denotes 
an object of the female sex; and river denotes an object 
without sex ; therefore there is a property of the noun 
to denote the sex of the object or objects it represents. 
This property is called gender. 

Nouns which are used to denote males are of the 
masculine gender. 

Nouns which are used to denote females are of the 
feminine gender. 

Nouns which are used to denote either a male, a 
female, or both are of the common gender. 



36 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Nouns which are used to denote things without sex 
are of the neuter gender. 

40. Definitions. 

The property of a part of speech is a peculiar mean- 
ing which belongs to it. 

Gender is a property of the noun which relates to 
sex. 

There are four genders, the masculine, the feminine, 
the common, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes males ; as, boy, man, 
John, uncle. 

The feminine gender denotes females; as, girl, aunt, 
Mary. 

The common gender denotes males, females, or 
both ; as, cousin, pupil, children. 

The neuter gender denotes things without sex ; as, 
desk, time, ocean. 

Questions. — What is said of the nouns John, Mary, and river? 
What property, therefore, have nouns? What is this property 
called ? What nouns are of the masculine gender ? What nouns 
are of the feminine gender? What nouns are of the common gen- 
der ? What nouns are of the neuter gender ? 

Define the property of a part of speech. Define gender. How 
many genders, and what are they called? Define the masculine 
gender. Define the feminine gender. Define the common gender. 
Define the neuter gender. Name three nouns of the masculine 
gender. Name three of the feminine. Name three of the common. 
Name three of the neuter. 

4L Models for Exercise. 

' Tell the boy to come. 
Boy is the name of an object of the male sex, hence it is 
of the masculine gender. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 37 

"Where has the girl gone ? 
Girl is the name of an object of the female sex, hence it 
is of the feminine gender. 

She gave it to the child. 
Child is a name which may be applied to either sex, 
hence it is of the common gender. 

Have you seen my slate f 
Slate is the name of an object without sex, hence it is of 
the neuter gender. 

Describe the nouns in the following'. 

My father will go with me. Give John the book. 
He was sitting on the box. Where has your sister 
lived? I saw Henry playing in the yard. The moon 
was just rising. James has broken a chair. Love 
your parents. He was mayor of the city. The birds 
are singing sweetly. The leaves are changing their 
color. His servant came with him. Is your uncle 
improving? Attentive pupils do learn. This is my 
landlady. She was a beautiful bride. 

42. Person. 

A noun may be so used as to denote the speaker, the 
object addressed, or the object spoken of. 

This property of the noun is called person. 

A noun denoting the speaker is said to be of the 
first person. 

A noun denoting the object addressed is said to be 
of the second person. 

A noun denoting the object spoken of is said to (be 
of the third person. 

Since the noun may denote the speaker, the object 
addressed by the speaker, or the object spoken of by 



38 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

the speaker; person is a property of the noun which 
relates to the speaker. 

43. Definitions. 

Person is that property of the noun which shows 
its relation to the speaker. 

Nouns have three persons, the first, the second, and 
the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker; as, I, John, 
will go. 

The second person denotes the object addressed; 
as, John, you may go. Listen, Earth. 

The third person denotes the object spoken of; as, 
We saw Mary. They went to the city. 

Obs. — Strictly speaking, person is a property of the pro- 
noun. It is a property of the noun in connection with other 
words. 

Questions. — What may a noun be used to denote? What is this 
property called? What is said of a noun denoting the speaker? 
What of a noun denoting the object addressed ? What of a noun 
denoting the object spoken of? To what does this property relate, 
and why ? 

Define person. How many persons have nouns ? What are they ? 
Define the first person. Give examples. Define the second person. 
Give examples. Define the third person. Give examples. 

44. Models for Exercise. 

I, James, saw your brother. 
James in this sentence is the name of the speaker, hence 
it is of the first person. 

Boys, give attention to me. 
Boys in this sentence is the name of the objects addressed, 
hence it is of the second person. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 39 

You may speak to my father. 
Father in this sentence is the name of the object spoken 
of, hence it is of the third person. 

Describe the nouns in the following. 

Ellen, you may have my basket. They are coming 
to the city soon. I, your father, wish you to do it. 
My son, where are you going? Did William bring the 
apples? Paul, thou art beside thyself. These rivers 
are deep. The minstrel was infirm and old. Reading 
is pleasant. Children, you must make haste to school. 
Soul of the just, where is thy home ? I, Paul, beseech 
you. 

45. Number. 

A noun may be used to denote one object; as, boy; or 
it may be used to denote more than one object; as, boys. 

This property of the noun is called number. 

A noun which denotes but one is said to be of the 
singular number. 

A noun which denotes more than one is said to be of 
the plural number. 

A noun which denotes one is said to denote unity. 

A noun which denotes more than one is said to de- 
note plurality. 

46. Definitions. 

Number is a property of the noun to distinguish 
unity and plurality. 

There are two numbers; the singular and the plural. 

The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy, 
woman, knife. 

The plural number expresses more than one; as, 
boys, women, knives. 



40 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

47. Formation of Plurals. 

Nouns have different methods of forming their 
plurals. 

Plurals formed by adding s or es to the singular are 
called regular plurals. 

Plurals otherwise formed are called irregular plurals. 

Rules for Regular Plurals. 

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s take s 
only; as, pins from pin; hopes from hope; charms from 
charm. 

2. Nouns whose singular ends in s, sli, or ch, take 
es; as, passes from pass; bushes from bush; inches from 
inch. 

3. Some nouns ending in o take s; as, folios from 
folio; grottos from grotto. 

4. Other nouns ending in o, take es ; as, heroes from 
hero; potatoes from potato. 

Rules for Irregular Plurals. 

1. Some nouns ending in f and fe, drop this ending, 
and take Yes; as, knives from knife; halves from half 

2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, drop 
this ending take ies; as cities from city; cherries from 
chary. 

3. Letters, figures, and signs take the apostrophe and 
s; as, a's from a; 8's from 8; -f's from +. 

4. Some nouns form their plurals very irregularly ; 
as, feet from foot; oxen from ox; children from child; 
mice from mouse. 

5. Compound words generally change the basis or 
principal part; as, bondmen from bondman; cupfuls from 
cupful. 

6. Some nouns from the nature of the things they 



PROPEKTIES OP NOUNS. 41 

represent, are used only in the singular ; as, gold, flour, 
milk, molasses. 

7. Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, ashes, 
oats, tongs. 

8. Some nouns have the same forms in both numbers; 
as, sheep, deer, smine. 

Spell the plural of the following words. 

Door, face, slate, box, pinch, play, window, leaf, pipe, 
fife, lady, tooth, watch, valley, wish, girl, man, sty, 
goose, son-in-law, calf, m, tomato, fancy, scarf, chair, 
7, piano, man-servant, chimney, blackboard, measles, 
scissors, penny, brother. 

Questions. — What may a noun be used to denote? What is this 
property called ? What is said of a noun which denotes but one ? 
What of a noun which denotes more than one ? What is said to 
denote unity ? What is said to denote plurality ? 

Define number. How many numbers? What are they? Define 
the singular number. Define the plural number. Give examples 
of each kind. 

What kind of plurals are called regular plurals? What kind are 
called irregular plurals ? What nouns form their plurals by the 
addition of s to the singular? What nouns take es to the singular? 
How do nouns ending in o form their plurals? Give examples of 
those which take s only. Give examples of those which takes es. 
Give examples of nouns which are used only in the singular. Give 
examples of nouns used only in the plural. Give examples of nouns 
having the same form in both numbers. 

48. Models for Exercise. 

The boy has bought new books. 

Boy is the name of but one object, hence it is a noun of 
the singular number. 

Books is the name of more than one object, hence it is a 
noun of the plural number. 

4* 



42 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Describe the nouns in the following. 

These are sweet cherries. Where are the boys play- 
ing ? I saw three mice. The wind has blown the tree 
down. The man and his horse are out in the rain. 
We found the birds' nest. Thomas saw the tree fall. 
Stewart sells ladies' dresses. My brother's books are in 
his desk. The earth was refreshed by the showers. 

49. Relations of Nouns. 

In the formation of sentences, the noun may be used 
for different purposes ; and these purposes are called its 
relations. 

The principal relations of nouns are — 

1st. The subject relation to a finite verb ; as, Mary 
studies. 

2d. The possessive relation to another noun; as, 
This is Mary's book. 

3d. The objectiTe relation to a verb or a preposi- 
tion; as, He saw Mary. He spoke to Mary. 

4th. The defining relation to a noun, or a pro- 
noun ; as, The apostle John was loved. He, John, was 
there. 

5th. The predicate relation, being used afc the 
complement of the verb ; as, It was Mary. 

6th. The adverbial relation, when it expresses 
time or quantity ; as, He w r ent last week. He walked 
twenty miles. 

7th. Nouns have sometimes no grammatical rela- 
tions to other words ; as, John, study your lessons. Oh, 
foolish man/ 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 43 

Questions. — What are the purposes for which nouns are used in 
a sentence called? What is the first relation named? Give a 
sentence containing a noun in that relation. Name the second 
relation, and give example. Name the third relation, and give 
examples. Name the fourth relation, and give examples. Name 
the fifth relation, and give example. Name the sixth relation, and 
give examples. What is said of some other nouns ? 

50. Case. 

Case is a property of the noun which shows its re- 
lation to other words. 

Nouns have four cases ; the nominative, the possessive, 
the objective, and the absolute. 

A noun is in the nominative case:— 

1. When it is the subject of a finite verb; as, John 
walks. John is wise. 

2. When it has the predicate relation ; as, John is a 
scholar. He was called John. 

3. When it has the defining relation to another noun 
in the nominative case ; as, John the carpenter arrived. 
Paul the apostle preached. 

A noun is in the possessive case:— 

1. When it denotes possession, origin, or design ; as, 
John's book. The teacher uses Gillott's pens. James 
sells children's shoes. 

2. When it has the defining relation to another noun 
in the possessive case ; as, Victoria the queen's picture. 
Byron the poet's works. 

A noun is in the objective case:— 

1. When it is the object of a verb ; as, He saw John. 

2. When it is the object of a preposition ; as, He spoke 
to John. 

8. When it has the defining relation to another noun 
in the objective case ; as, He saw Napoleon the emperor. 
He showed us platinum, the heaviest metal known. 



44 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

A noun is in the absolute case:— 

1. When it denotes the object of direct address ; as, 
John, study your lesson. Go not, my son, in the way 
of bad men. 

2. When it is used as an exclamation, or the prin- 
cipal word in an exclamation ; as, Oh, the folly of sin- 
ners ! What surprising genius ! 

3. When used as the subject of a participle, and in- 
dependently of other words ; as, The sun having risen, 
we departed. 

4. When used as an elliptical expression, such as the 
title of a book, subject, chapter, or other heading; as, 
Webster's Dictionary. Human Duty. Daily Dispatch. 
Section 4th. 

5. When used in an adverbial sense, without a pre- 
position ; as, He lived two cmturies ago. The street is 
sixty feet wide. 

6. When it follows the verbal noun being; as, I 
doubted his being a soldier. 

The nominative, objective, and absolute cases of 
nouns are alike in form, and must be distinguished 
by their relations. 

The possessive case is formed from the nominative 
by annexing an apostrophe and s, or an apostrophe 
only. 

This addition is called the sign of the possessive case. 

51. Rules for forming the Possessive Case. 

1. Nouns not ending in the sound of s or z take the 
apostrophe and s; as, man, man's; men, men's; John, 
John's. 

2. Plural nouns ending in s take the apostrophe only ; 
as, The boys' books. The girls' lessons. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 



45 



3. Singular nouns ending in the sound of s or z gen- 
erally take the apostrophe and s; as, Collins' s odes. 
Bums' s poems. James's writing. 

A few take the apostrophe only ; as, Achilles' shield. 
Conscience' sake. 

In the case of singular nouns ending in the sound 
of s or z, the s after the apostrophe adds a syllable to 
the pronunciation ; as, James's is pronounced James-is. 
When euphony does not permit such addition, the 
apostrophe only should be used ; as, Davies' Mathema- 
tics, — not Davies's (Davies-is) Mathematics. 

52. Declension. 

To decline a noun is to express its numbers and 

cases. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nora. 


lady, 


ladies, 


man, 


men, 


Poss. 


lady's, 


ladies', 


man's, 


men's, 


Obj. 


lady, 


ladies, 


man, 


men, 


Aba. 


lady, 


ladies. 


man, 


men. 



The apostrophe and s ('s) is a contraction of the old 
possessive sign es or is; as, The king-is crown. 



Spell the possessive case of the following nouns. 


Teacher, 


Burns, 


James, 




passenger, 


Mary, 


Wells, 


Thomas, 




Moses, 


wisdom, 


horses, 


Charles, 




ministers, 


woman, 


eagle, 


children, 




tutors, 


goodness, 


eagles, 


actress, 




mouse, 


conscience, 


John, 


Willis, 




mice, 


Phillips, 


oxen, 


girls, 




neighbors, 


Augustus, 


tutor, 


mother-in 


-law, 


empress. 



46 PEIMAEY GEAMMAE. 

53. Models for Exercise. 

The boy is playing. 
Boy in this sentence has the subject relation to the finite 
verb is playing, hence it is in the nominative case. 

Jane's slate is lost. 
Jane's in this sentence has the possessive relation to the 
noun slate, hence it is in the possessive case. 

I saw a bird in a cage. 

Bird in this sentence has the objective relation to the verb 
saiv, hence it is in the objective case. 

Cage in this sentence has the objective relation to the pre- 
position in, hence it is in the objective case. 

Mary, the diligent pupil, stands first. 
Pupil in this sentence has the defining relation to the 
noun Mary, which is in the nominative case; hence pupil is 
in the nominative case. 

He is an honest boy. 
Boy in this sentence has the predicate relation to the verb 
is, being its complement, hence it is in the nominative case. 

He walked many miles. 
miles in this sentence has the adverbial relation, since it 
expresses quantity, hence it is in the absolute case. 

Mary, where are your books? 
Mary in this sentence has no grammatical relation to the 
other words of the sentence, hence it is in the absolute case. 

Describe the nouns in the following. 

The sun gives light by day. John owns a pretty 
bird. My son, speak gently. Farmers mow the grass. 
The queen Victoria is loved. Where were you last 
night? Milton, the great English poet, was blind. 
I gave it to Mary, the minister's daughter. Whence 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 47 

are thy beams, Sun ? Pittsburgh. December 4th, 
1872. Oh, the folly of sin ! We saw Grant, the presi- 
dent The mist melted away in the morning. 

54. Parsing. 

Naming the parts of speech, and telling their classes, 
properties, and relations according to a set form is called 
parsing. 

Parsing is naming the parts of speech, and telling 
their classes, properties, and relations according to a 
set form. 

55. Models for parsing nouns. 

The pupils recited well this morning. 
Pupils is a noun, common ; of the common gender, third 
person, plural number, and in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the verb recited, according to Rule I. — The subject 
of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

Questions. — Why is the word pupils a noun ? Why of the com- 
mon gender? Why of the third person ? Why of the plural num- 
ber ? Why in the nominative case ? 

Morning is a noun, common ; of the neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, and in the absolute case, being used 
in an adverbial sense, according to Rule VI. — A noun or pro- 
noun not otherwise governed, is in the absolute case. 

We have lost John's ball. 
John's is a noun, proper ; of the masculine gender, third 
person, singular number, and in the possessive case, having 
the possessive relation to the noun father, according to Rule 
III* — A noun or pronoun denoting possession, is in the posses- 
sive case. 

Ball is a noun, common ; of the neuter gender, third per- 
son, singular number, and in the objective case, being the 



48 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

object of the verb have lost, according to Rule IV. — The object 
of a transitive verb is in the objective case. 

He works for James the carpenter. 

James is a noun, proper; of the masculine gender, third 
person and singular number, and in the objective case, being 
the object of the preposition for; Rule V. — The object of a 
preposition is in the objective case. 

Carpenter is a noun, common ; of the masculine gender, 
third person and singular number, and in the objective case, 
being in opposition with the noun James ; Rule II. — A noun 
or pronoun in opposition is in the same case as the substantive 
which it limits. 

Parse the nouns in the following sentences. 

Mary's bird sings. America was discovered. The 
moon is shining. Her head aches. His daughter 
Sarah sings. The pupils were reciting. Fishes swim 
in the sea. The king of France fled. The river is 
forty miles long. John, make haste to school. Osgood's 
Speller. The cat caught a mouse. We saw an eagle's 
nest. The pupils study and recite. Labor brings 
pleasure. Anger rests in the bosom of the wicked. 
The patriot loves his country. We attended the funeral 
of Meade, the general. Oh, happy people! Surely 
goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of 
my life. Thomas moved from the city to the country. 
Chapter 40th. Hope, the balm of life, lightens every 
misfortune. False delicacy is affectation. 

56. Of the Pronoun. 

Certain words are used instead of nouns ; as in the 
sentence, Mary has a book, and she reads it; the word 
she is used instead of the noun Mary, and the word it 



PRONOUNS. 49 

is used instead of the noun booh. Such words are 
called pronouns. 

Pro means for, hence pronoun means for a noun. 

Since pronouns stand for nouns, they have the same 
properties as nouns ; gender, person, number, and case. 

They must have the same gender, person, and number 
as the nouns for which they stand; but their case may 
be different. 

Certain pronouns have a form to denote whether 
they are of the first, the second, or the third person; 
such pronouns are called personal pronouns. 

The pronoun I always denotes the speaker, hence it 
is of the first person. 

The pronoun you always denotes the object addressed, 
hence it is of the second person. 

The pronoun he always denotes the person spoken 
of, hence it is of the third person. 

57. Definitions. 

A pronoun is a part of speech used instead of a 
noun; as, John studies his lessons. The boy who 
studies will improve. 

Pronouns are of four classes, called personal, relative, 
interrogative, and definitive. 

A personal pronoun is one which has a form to 
denote its person. 

The words generally used as personal pronouns are: — 

Of the first person, I, my, mine, me; we, our, ours, 
us; myself, ourselves. 

Of the second person, you, your, yours, ye; thou, thy, 
thine, thee; yourself, yourselves, thyself. 

Of the third person, he, his, him; she, her, hers; it, 
its; they, their, tlieirs, them; himself, herself, itself, them- 
selves. 

D 6 



50 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Questions. — What is said of certain words? What are such 
words called? What does pro mean? What does pronoun mean? 
What properties have pronouns? Why? What gender, number, 
and person have pronouns ? What does the form of certain pronouns 
denote? What are such pronouns called? What does the pronoun 
/ always denote? Of what person is it? What does you always 
denote? Of what person is it? What does he always denote? Of 
what person is it? 

Define a pronoun. Name the four classes of pronouns. Define 
a personal pronoun. Name the personal pronouns of the first 
person. Name those of the second person. Name those of the 
third person. 

58. Models for Exercise. 

John lent his book to you and me. 
His is a word used instead of the noun John, hence it is a 
pronoun ; its form shows it to be of the third person, hence 
it is a personal pronoun. 

You is a word used instead of a noun understood, hence 
it is a pronoun; its form shows it to be of the second person, 
hence it is a personal pronoun. 

Me is a word used instead of a noun understood, hence it 
is a pronoun; its form shows it to be of the first person, hence 
it is a personal pronoun. 

Describe the pronouns in the following sentences. 

Her head aches. He is studious. We are playing. 
It was John. They speak correctly. She has found 
your ball. Let us do our work well. My children love 
their home. We saw our friends to-day. Columbus 
returned to his country. He has hurt himself. You 
may take all of them. Is that knife yours? I saw it 
myself. John saw his sister in danger, and rescued 
her. Charles took your book with him, and has left 
mine. Mary, you have deceived me. The Indians 
often paint themselves. Remember thy Creator. 



PRONOUNS. 51 

59. Substantive and Antecedent. 

The noun which the pronoun represents or stands 
for, is called its substantive; as in the sentence, The dog 
loves his master, his represents the noun dog, hence dog 
is the substantive of his. 

The substantive is sometimes understood and not 
written; as in the sentence, J walk, the substantive of 
I is the speaker understood ; in the sentence, You walk, 
the substantive of you is the person addressed, under- 
stood ; in the sentence, She walks, the substantive of she 
is the person spoken of, understood. 

The term understood, as here used, means in the mind, 
but not in the writing. 

When the substantive is before the pronoun in the 
expression or in the thought, it is called the antecedent 
of the pronoun. 

The term substantive is also used to denote a noun, 
or any word or group of words which has the rela- 
tion of a noun to the other words of a sentence ; as in 
the sentence, To be good is to be happy, the phrase to be 
good is the subject of the verb is, hence it is called a 
substantive; in the same sentence, the phrase to be 
happy has the predicate relation to verb is, hence it is 
a substantive. 

In the following sentences, the italicized expressions 
are substantives ; The man reads. He saw me. To study 
carefully improves the mind. That he is a good man is 
evident. 

60. Definitions. 

The term substantive denotes a noun, or its equiva- 
lent in a sentence. 



52 PKIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The substantive of a pronoun is the noun which 
it represents. 

The antecedent of a pronoun is a substantive which 
in thought or in writing is placed before the pronoun. 

Questions. — What is the noun which the pronoun stands for 
called? What is said of the substantive? What is meant by the 
term understood? When the substantive is before the pronoun 
what is it called? For what other purpose is the term substantive 
used? 

Define the term substantive. Define the expression, substantive 
of a pronoun. Define the antecedent. 

61. Edative Pronouns. 

A pronoun which relates to an antecedent and unites 
clauses is called a relative pronoun; as in the sentence, 
The boy who studies carefully will improve, who relates 
to its antecedent boy, and unites the clauses, The boy 
will improve and who studies carefully, hence it is a rela- 
tive pronoun In the sentence, I heard what he said, 
what relates to an antecedent understood, and unites 
the clauses I heard and what he said, hence it is a rela- 
tive pronoun. 

62. Definitions. 

A relative prononn is one which relates to an an- 
tecedent and unites clauses ; as, This is the bird which 
sang so sweetly. 

The principal relatives are — 

Who, whose, whom, whoever, whosoever, whomsoever; 
which, whichever, whichsoever; what, whatever, whatsoever. 
That and as are sometimes relatives. 

That is a relative when it has the meaning of who 
or which; as, It is you that (who) I mean. I gave you 
all that (which) I had. 



PRONOUNS. 53 

As is a relative when it follows such, many, same, or 
as much; as, They are such as labor. Take as many as 
you can use. I have the same lesson as you. I have 
as much money as you have. 

Questions. — What is a pronoun which relates to an antecedent 
and unites clauses called ? Ans. — A pronoun which relates to an 
antecedent and unites clauses is called a relative pronoun. 

Define a relative pronoun. Name the principal relatives. When 
is that a relative? Give examples. When is as a relative? Give 
examples. 

63. Models for Exercise. 

The man who is good is happy. 
Who in this sentence relates to the noun man for its ante- 
cedent, and unites the clauses, The man is happy, and who is 
good, hence it is a relative pronoun. 

You can be whatever you desire. 
Whatever in this sentence relates to an antecedent under- 
stood, and unites the clauses, You can be and whatever you 
desire, hence it is a relative pronoun. 

Describe the relatives in the following sentences. 

The light which comes from the sun is pleasant. 
These are the soldiers who serve the king. Our friends 
who live in the city are coming. He is the best mu- 
sician that I ever heard. All that were on the vessel 
were drowned. The nation which has a good ruler 
must prosper. Stay not to hear voices that call thee 
in the way. The apples which you gave me are very 
sour. The boat which we saw has sailed. Few persons 
accomplish as much as they wish. This is the most 
fertile ground that we have yet seen. I know who 
came. He instructed the crowds that surrounded him. 
He has the same studies as I have. Take whatever he 
gives you. 



54 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

64. Interrogative Pronouns. 

In the sentence, Who came f the pronoun who does 
not unite clauses, but it is used to ask a question, and 
the speaker has not in his mind a definite antecedent. 

Pronouns used to ask questions are called interroga- 
tive pronouns. 

The same words which are used as interrogatives are 
also used as relatives ; as in the sentence, What did he 
say ? What is used in asking a question, hence it is an 
interrogative ; in the sentence, I know what you saw, 
what unites clauses, hence it is a relative. 

A relative pronoun may be a part of a question, but 
not the interrogative word ; as in the sentence, Do you 
know who he is ? who unites the clauses, hence it is a 
relative pronoun, but the question is asked by the verb 
do know. 

65. Definitions. 

An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking a 
question; as, Who came? Which did he take? What 
are you doing ? 

The interrogatives are who, which, and what. 

Questions. — For what purpose is the word who used in the sen- 
tence, Who came? What are pronouns so used called? Give an 
example of an interrogative which is sometimes a relative. Show 
how a relative may be a part of a question, and yet not ask the 
question. Define an interrogative pronoun. Name the inter- 
rogatives. 

66. Definitive Pronouns. 

In the sentence, Do unto others as you would wish 
them to do unto you, others is used instead of other per- 
sons, and hence it represents the noun persons which it 
limits. 



PRONOUNS. 



55 



In the sentence, You may take that book, and I will 
take this; this is used instead of this book, and hence it 
represents and limits the noun book 

Words used to represent and limit nouns are called 
definitive pronouns. 

The definitive pronoun is the equivalent of a noun 
and an adjective; as in the first example given above, 
others is equivalent to the adjective other and the noun 
person; and in the second example given, this is equiva- 
lent to the adjective this and the noun book. 

67. Definitions. 

A definitive pronoun is one which represents a 
noun understood which it limits ; as, Any or all of you 
may come ; i. e., Any person or all persons of you may 
come. 

The substantive of a definitive pronoun is the noun 
understood which it limits. 

The words most frequently used as definitive pro- 
nouns are — . 



Each, 


these, 


some, 


both, 


every, 


those, 


other, 


same, 


either, 


former, 


any, 


another, 


neither, 


latter, 


one, 


none, 


this, 


first, 


all, 


few, 


that, 


last, 


such, 


many. 



Questions. — How is the word others used in the first sentence? 
How is the word this used in the second sentence? What are 
words so used called? What is the definitive pronoun equivalent to? 

Define a definitive pronoun. Define the substantive of a defini- 
tive pronoun. 

68. Model for Exercise. 

This is the man who thinks these are prosperous times. 
This is equivalent to this man, and represents and limits 
man understood, hence it is a definitive pronoun. 



56 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

These is equivalent to these times, and represents and 
limits the noun times understood, hence it is a definitive pro- 
noun. 

Describe the deflnitiyes in the following sentences. 

He took one book, and I took the other. This rule 
is better than that. These words are easier than those. 
That book is yours; this is mine. Few persons are 
without faults, but some are better than others. This 
is the man. These are prosperous times. All or any 
of you may come. Many are called, but few are 
chosen. Neither of the verses pleases me, for both are 
defective. Here are the books, and you may take any 
or all of them. 

69. Properties of Pronouns. 

The properties of pronouns are gender, person, number, 
and case. 

A pronoun has the same gender, person, and number 
as the noun for which it stands; its case may be dif- 
ferent. 

70. Declension of Personal Pronouns. 
First Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. I, Nom. We, 

Poss. My or mine, Poss. Our or ours, 

Obj. Me, Obj. Us, 

Abs. I. Abs. We. 

Second Person (Graye Style). 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Thou, Nom. Ye, 

Poss. Thy or thine, Poss. Your or Yours, 

Obj. Thee, Obj. You, 

Abs. Thou. Abs. Ye. 



PRONOUNS. 57 

Second Person (Common Style). 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. You, 


Nom. You, 


Poss. Your or yours, 


Poss. Your or yours, 


Obj. You, 


Obj. You, 


Abs. You. 


Abs. You. 



Third Person (Masculine Gender), 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. He, Nom. They, 

Poss. His, Poss. Their or theirs, 

Obj. Him, Obj. Them, 

Abs. He. Abs. They. 



Third Person (Feminine Gender). 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. She, Nom. They, 

Poss. Her or hers, Poss. Their or theirs, 

Obj. Her, Obj. Them, 

Abs. She. Abs. They. 

Third Person (Xenter Gender). 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. It, 


Nom. They, 


Poss. Its, 


Poss. Their or theirs, 


Obj. It, 


Obj. Them, 


Abs. It. 


Abs. They. 



58 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Declension of Relative Pronouns. 



Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Who, 


whose, 


whom. 


Which, 


whose, 


which. 


Whosoever, 


whosesoever. 


whomsoever. 



The other relatives are indeclinable. 



Declension of Definitive Pronouns. 

The definitives one, other, and another, are declined 
as follows: — 





Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Nom. 


One, 


ones. 


Other, 


others. 


Another. 


Poss. 


One's, 


ones'. 


Other's, 


others'. 


Another's. 


Obj. 


One, 


ones. 


Other, 


others. 


Another. 



71. Models for Parsing Pronouns. 

Father, I saw the man who talked to you. 
I is a pronoun, personal ; of the common gender, first per- 
son, singular number, to agree with its substantive under- 
stood; Rule VIII. — Pronouns must agree with their substan- 
tives in gender, person, and number. I is in the nominative 
case, being the subject of the verb saw; Rule I. — The subject 
of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

Who is a pronoun, relative; of the masculine gender, third 
person, singular number, to agree with its substantive man; 
Rule VIII. — Who is in the nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb talked; Rule I. 

You is a pronoun, personal; of the masculine gender, 
second person, singular number, to agree with its substantive 
father; Rule VIII, — You is in the objective case, governed 
by the preposition to; Rule V. — The object of a transitive verb 
u in the objective case. 



ADJECTIVES. 59 

This is the better rule. 

This is a pronoun, definitive ; of the neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, to agree with its substantive under- 
stood ; Rule VIII. — This is in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the verb is; Rule I. 

Which of the books is lost? 

Which is a pronoun, interrogative ; of the neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, to agree with its substantive 
understood ; Rule VIII. — Which is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb is lost; Rule I. 

Od. The models for parsing the pronouns, what, whatever, 
whoever, and whichever, usually called compound relatives, 
will be found after analysis of sentences. As these words are 
generally used to introduce substantive clauses, their con- 
struction can be better understood after analysis has been 
learned. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences. 

He bought a farm. Who was with you? I, John, 
saw her. Has Henry studied his lesson? Virtue 
ennobles us. Whom did they send? The house in 
which we live has been sold. We besought our 
friends to give their advice. What did he say? If 
thine enemy hunger, feed him. You may pursue 
those studies which suit your task. I approved of 
their speaking to you. He east himself down at 
Jesus' feet. It was John, he that wrote the letter. 
They, and not we, were there.' Teach me to feel 
another's woe. Withhold not good from them to 
whom it is due. Are these men they whom you 
desire to see? The court in its wisdom decided 
otherwise. She has two sisters, one of whom I have 
seen. 



60 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

72. Of the Adjective. 

Words which are added to nouns and pronouns to 
qualify or limit their meaning, are called adjectives; 
as in the sentence, Deep rivers float heavy rafts, deep is 
a word which qualifies the meaning of the noun rivers, 
hence it is an adjective; heavy is a word used to qualify 
the meaning of the noun rafts, hence it is an adjective. 

In the sentence, This boy is industrious, this limits 
the meaning of the noun boy, and is called a definitive 
adjective; industrious qualifies the meaning of the noun 
boy, and is called a descriptive adjective. 

In the sentence, Which road did he take? Which 
limits the meaning of the noun road, and also asks a 
question, and is called an interrogative adjective. 

In the sentence, I will be there in ten hours, ten 
limits the meaning of the noun hours, and also ex- 
presses number ; in the sentence, This is the first page, 
first limits the meaning of the noun page, and ex- 
presses number ; such words are called numeral adjec- 
tives. 

73. Definitions. 

An adjective is a part of speech used to qualify or 
limit the meaning of a noun or a pronoun ; as, These 
are tall trees. Grass is green. He is kind. 

Adjectives are divided into two kinds, descriptive and 
definitive. 

A descriptive adjective is one which expresses 
quality, kind or condition ; as, This is a tall tree. This 
is an oak tree. This is a dead tree. 

A definitive adjective is one which defines or 
limits; as, I gave him one book. She has taken that 
pencil. 



ADJECTIVES. 



61 



The principal definitives are : 



One, 


every, 


last, 


another, 


two, 


either, 


some, 


no, 


first, 


neither, 


other, 


many, 


second, 


this, 


any, 


few, 


third, 


that, 


one, 


much, 


a, 


these, 


all, 


more, 


an, 


those, 


such, 


most, 


the, 


former, 


both, 


which, 


each, 


latter, 


same, 


what. 


)efinitive 


3 include 


interrogatives, 


numerals, 



and 
articles. 

An interrogative adjective is one used in asking 
a question; as, What places did you visit? 

A numeral adjective is one used to express number; 
as, Four boys carried the banner. This is the third 
time I have called you. 

The articles are a, an, and the. 

The is called the definite article, because it is 
used when we refer to some particular object or class 
of objects; as, I saw the boy who did it. 

A or an is called the indefinite article, because it 
is used when we refer to one of a class, but to no par- 
ticular one; as, I saw a boy with an eagle. 

Questions. — What words are called adjectives? Repeat the two 
examples given. Give two other examples. Why is this called a 
definitive adjective? Why is industrious called a descriptive adjec- 
tive? For what purpose is which used in the sentence given? What 
kind of an adjective is which? What do the adjectives two and 
first express? What kind of adjectives are they? 

Define an adjective. Define a descriptive adjective. Give ex- 
amples. Define a definitive adjective. Give examples. Define 
an interrogative adjective. Give examples. Define a numeral 
adjective. Give examples. Name and define the definite article. 
Name and define the indefinite article. 
6 



62 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

74. Models for Exercise. 

This apple is sweet. 
This is a definitive adjective, because it limits the mean- 
ing of the noun apple. 

Sweet is a descriptive adjective, because it expresses 
quality of the noun apple. 

Which boy takes the first honor? 
Which is an interrogative adjective, because it limits the 
meaning of the noun boy, and also asks a question. 

First is a numeral adjective, because it limits the meaning 
of the noun honor, and also expresses number. 

The girl took an apple. 

The is the definite article, because it refers to a particular 
girl. 

An is the indefinite article, because it refers to no particu- 
lar apple. 

Describe the adjectives in the following sentences. 

The old bird is singing. Last night the sky was 
dark. They are diligent pupils. Which man is your 
father? Lofty cedars bend. My brother walked forty 
miles. The wise, prudent judge decided. The fruit is 
ripe. The wisest men may err. My father is tall. A 
dark cloud hung over the city. He is young and 
hopeful. The farm cost a thousand dollars. We drank 
from a spring of clear water. I paid twenty cents for 
the second ball. We live on that high hill. Mr. 
Williams has a new gold watch. We went in the first 
wagon. John is taller than James. I met your eldest 
brother. 

75. Comparison. 

Adjectives which express quality may express that 
quality in different degrees; as, John is a good penman; 



ADJECTIVES. 63 

James is a better penman ; but William is the best of 
the three. These apples are sweet; those are sweeter ; 
but neither lot is the sweetest we have. 

This change in the form to express different degrees 
of quality is the property of comparison. 

The adjective in its simplest form expresses quality 
without comparison, and it is said to be in the positive 
degree. 

The adjective which denotes comparison between 
two objects, expresses quality either in a higher or 
lower degree, and it is said to be in the comparative 
degree. 

The adjective which denotes a comparison of three 
or more objects, expresses quality either in the highest 
. or the lowest degree, and it is said to be in the superla- 
tive degree. 

The degree of the adjective is known by its form. 

The 'positive degree is the simple form of the word ; as, 
ivise, little, peculiar. 

The comparative degree is formed from the positive 
by adding er, or by prefixing more or less; as, older 
from old; more peculiar from peculiar; less wise from 
wise. 

The superlative degree is formed from the positive by 
adding est, or by prefixing most or least; as, oldest from 
old; most peculiar from peculiar; least wise from wise. 

76. Definitions. 

Comparison is the property of the adjective to ex- 
press quality in different degrees. 

There are three degrees of comparison, the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree is that form of the adjective 
which expresses qualit}' without comparison ; as, This 



64 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

is a good knife. These are happy days. His honesty 
is doubtful. 

The comparative degree is that form of the adjec- 
tive which expresses quality in a higher or a lower 
degree ; as, This is a better knife than that. Her life 
has been happier since you came. The son's honesty is 
less doubtful than the father's. This apple is smaller 
than that. 

The superlative degree is that form of the adjec- 
tive which expresses quality in the highest or the 
lowest degree ; as, Mine is the best knife of the three. 
These are the happiest days^of my life. Whose honesty 
is the least doubtful ? 



A few adjectives 


are irregular in 


their comparison : — 


Positive. 




Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 




better, 


best. 


Bad, ill, or 


evil, 


worse, 


worst 


Little, 




less, 


least. 


Late, 




later or latter, 


latest or last. 


Near, 




nearer, 


nearest or next. 


Far, 




farther, 


farthest. 


Forth, 




further, 


furthest. 


Fore, 




former, 


foremost or first. 


Old, 




older or elder, 


oldest or eldest. 



77. Remarks on Adjectives. 

1. Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by 
suffixing er and est ; as, great, greater, greatest 

2. Adjectives of two syllables are generally compared 
by prefixing more and most; as, careful, more careful, most 
careful. 

3. Some adjectives of two syllables may be compared by suf- 
fixing er and est; generally those ending in y or le preceded by 
a consonant; as, happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest. 



ADJECTIVES. 



65 



4. Adjectives of three or more syllables are always 
compared by prefixing more and most; beautiful, more beauti- 
ful, most beautiful. 

5. Most adjectives maybe compared by prefixing more and 
most; as, wise, more wise, most wise. 

6. -Some adjectives in their simple form do not admit of a 
higher degree of meaning ; an accurate use of language would, 
therefore, forbid their being compared. The following are 
examples : — 

Infinite, hopeless, square, major, 

perfect, full, straight, previous, 

endless, empty, level, preferable, 

eternal, round, blind, superior, &c. 



These may be considered in parsing to be in the positive 
degree, as they have no more simple form in the language. 

6. Many a, in such expressions as Many a man, Many a 
year, &c, should be parsed as one adjective. 

So also in such expressions as A few days, A hundred men, 
Dark blue cloth, the two adjectives may be parsed together as 
one adjective. 

78. Models for Exercise. 

Red is an adjective which expresses quality without com- 
parison, hence it is in the positive degree ; positive, red ; com- 
parative, redder; superlative, reddest. 

Sweeter is an adjective which expresses a higher degree 
of quality than the positive degree, hence it is in the compa- 
rative degree ; positive, sweet ; comparative, sweeter ; superla- 
tive, sweetest. 

Wisest is an adjective which expresses the highest degree 
of that quality, hence it is in the superlative degree ; positive, 
wise; comparative, wiser; superlative, wisest. 

Superior is an adjective which does not admit of a higher 
degree of meaning, and is said to be in the positive degree. 



66 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Describe and compare the following adjectives. 



High, 


strong, 


many, 


cheerful, 


smooth, 


heaviest, 


endless, 


prosy, 


older, 


supreme, 


quick, 


better, 


soft, 


great, 


least, 


ripe, 


clear, 


chief, 


round, 


happy, 


bad, 


sweetest, 


free, 


light, 


fearful, 


blue, 


merry, 


loud. 



Questions,— What is said of adjectives which express quality? 
What is this property called? What is said of the adjective in its 
simplest form? What is said of the adjective which denotes a com- 
parison between two objects? What is said of the adjective which 
denotes a comparison of three objects? How is the degree of the 
adjective known? What is the form of the positive degree? Give 
examples. What is the form of the comparative degree? Give 
examples. What is the form of the superlative degree? Give ex- 
amples. 

Define comparison. How many degrees of comparison are there? 
Define the positive degree. Give examples. Define the compara- 
tive degree. Give examples. Define the superlative degree. Give 
examples. 

Repeat the first rule for forming the comparative and superlative 
degree. Repeat the second rule. Repeat the third rule. Give 
examples under each rule. 



79. Models for Parsing Adjectives. 

Mary lives in that large house. 

That is an adjective, definitive, and limits the noun house; 
Rule XII. — Adjectives limit substantives. 

Large is an adjective, descriptive; of the positive degree, 
and relates to the noun house; Rule XII. 

He is happy. 
Happy is an adjective, descriptive; of the positive degree, 
and relates to the pronoun he; Rule XII. 



VERBS. 67 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. 

John is a good boy. Gold is heavy. He lives on 
the highest hill. Mary has a new doll. Wise men 
generally perform prudent deeds. James has an agree- 
able temper. The river is deeper now than it was 
yesterday. The farm cost a thousand dollars. Virtue 
confers supreme dignity on man, and should be his 
chief desire. Platinum is the heaviest of metals. 
Which is the larger number? The nightingale's voice 
is the sweetest in the grove. My reading lesson is on 
thirty-second page. Those were the least happy days 
of my life. The best and wisest men sometimes err. 
He is the youngest and most reliable member of the 
firm. The boy has superior talents. She is the most 
intelligent member of her family. 

A form more fair, a face more sweet, 
Ne'er hath it been my lot to greet; 
And her modest answer and graceful air 
Show her wise and good as she is fair. 

80. Of the Yerb. 

Words used to express action or being of a subject 
are called verbs; as in the sentence, John is working, 
is working expresses action of the subject John, hence 
it is a verb ; and in the sentence, The grass is green, is 
expresses being of the subject grass, hence it is a verb. 

In the sentence, Walking is a pleasant exercise, the 
word walking expresses action, but it does not express 
action of a subject, hence it is not a verb; it is the 
name of an action, and is, therefore, a noun. 

The noun or pronoun denoting that of which the 
verb expresses action or being, is called the subject of 
the verb. 



68 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The subject of a verb is generally in the nominative 
case, but not always; as in the sentence, I saw him 
walking, him is the subject of the verb walking, and is 
in the objective case. 

81. Definitions. 

A verb is a part of speech which expresses action 
or being of a subject; as, The tree grows. The tree is 
green. I saw him writing. 

The subject of a Terb is a noun or a pronoun de- 
noting that of which action or being is expressed ; as, 
The boys are playing. Mary is sick. 

Questions. — What are words which express action or being of a 
subject called? In the examples given why is is working a verb? 
Why is is a verb? Why is walking not a verb? What part of 
speech is it in the sentence given, and why? 

What is the subject? In what case is the subject generally? 
Give an example of a subject which is not in the nominative case. 

Define a verb. Define the subject of a verb. 

82. Principal Parts of Yerbs. 

Verbs have more variations of form than any other 
part of speech. 

These variations are called the parts of the verb. 

Certain parts are called principal parts, because they 
are the words from which the other parts are formed. 

The principal parts of the verb walk are, walk, walked, 
walking, walked. The second and fourth parts are 
formed by suffixing ed to the first part. 

Verbs which form their principal parts in this way 
are called regular verbs. 

Verbs which do not form their second and fourth 
parts by suffixing 'ed to the first part are called irre- 
gular verbs. 



VERBS. 



69 



All verbs form their third principal part by suffix- 
ing ing to the first part. 

The first principal part is called the present tense, in- 
dicative mode; the second is called the past tense, indica- 
tive mode; the third is called the imperfect participle; 
and the fourth is called the perfect participle. 

83. Definitions. 

Verbs have four principal parts which are : — 

1st. The present tense, indicative mode; as, talk, 
ride. 

2d. The past tense, indicative mode; as, talked, 
rode. 

3d. The imperfect participle ; as, talking, riding. 

4th. The perfect participle ; as, talked, ridden. 

When the termination ed or ing is annexed, the last 
letter of the present tense indicative mode is some- 
times dropped, changed, or doubled; as, smile, smil-ed; 
try, tri-ed; stop, stop-ped; love, lov-ing. 





Principal Parts of Regular 


Yerfos. 


Pres. Indicative. 


Past Indicative. 


Imper. Par. 


Perf. Par. 


Smile, 




smiled, 


smiling, 


smiled. 


Rule, 




ruled, 


ruling, 


ruled. 


Rob, 




robbed, 


robbing, 


robbed. 


Stop, 




stopped, 


stopping, 


stopped. 


Study, 




studied, 


studying, 


studied. 


Cry, 




cried, 


crying, 


cried. 


Mar, 




marred, 


marring, 


marred. 


Jump, 




jumped, 


jumping, 


jumped. 



84. Definitions. 

Verbs, with respect to the form of their principal 
parts, are of two kinds, regular and irregular. 



70 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



A regular verb is one which forms its past indica- 
tive and perfect participle by taking ed to the present 
indicative ; as, mend, mended, mending, mended. 

An irregular verb is one which does not form its 
past indicative and perfect participle by taking ed to 
the present indicative ; as, go, went, going, gone. 



85. Principal Parts of the Irregular Yerbs. 

Those marked with an R have also a regular form. 



Present. 


Past. 


Imperfect Part. 


Perf. Part.. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Awake ; 


awoke, R. 


awaking, 


awaked. 


Bear (to produce 


), bore, 


bearing, 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, bare, 


bearing, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beaten. 


Become, 


became, 


becoming, 


become. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befalling, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


begot, 


begetting, 


begotten. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beholding, 


beholden. 


Bend, 


bent, R. 


bending, 


bent, R. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R. 


bereaving, 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Bespeak, 


bespoke, 


bespeaking, 


bespoken. 


Bethink, 


bethought. 


bethinking, 


bethought. 


Bet, 


bet, 


betting, 


bet. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidding, 


bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blend, 


blent, R. 


blending, 


blent. 


Bless, 


blest, R. 


blessing, 


blest. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R. 


building, 


built, R. 



VERBS. 



71 



Present. 


Past. 


Imperfect Part. 


Perf. Part. 


Burn, 


burnt, R. 


burning, 


burnt, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


catching, 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave ( to adhere) cleaved, clave, 


cleaving, 


cleaved. 


Cleave (to split) 


, clove, cleft, 


cleaving, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clad, R. 


clothing, 


clad, R. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


creeping, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


crowing, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture 


, durst, 


daring, 


dared. 


Dare(fc> challenge) dared, 


daring, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing, 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


digging, 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreaming, 


dreamt, R. 


Dress, 


drest, R. 


dressing, 


drest, R. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, 


drank, drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelling, 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


felling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying, 


flown. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgetting, 


forgotten, forg< 


Forgive, 


forgave, 


forgiving, 


forgiven. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Freight, 


freighted, 


freighting, 


fraught, R. 



72 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Imperfect Part. 


Perf. Part. 


Get, 


got, 


getting, 


gotten, got. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilding, 


gilt, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


girding, 


girt, R. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graving, 


graven, R. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hanging, 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Heave, 


hove, R. 


heaving, 


hoven, R. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewing, 


hewn, R. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hiding, 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


holding, 


held, holden 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Lade (to load), 


laded, 


lading, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading, 


led. 


Lean, 


leant, R. 


leaning, 


leant, R. 


Learn, 


learnt, R. 


learning, 


learnt, R. 


Leap, 


leapt, R. 


leaping, 


leapt, R. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


letting, 


let. 


Lie (to recline). 


lay, 


lying, 


lain. 


Light, 


lit, R. 


lighting, 


lit, R. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meaning, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Mistake, 


mistook, 


mistaking, 


mistaken. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mown, R. 


Mulct, 


mulcted, 


mulcting, 


mulct, R. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Pen (to enclose), 


pent, R. 


penning, 


pent, R. 


Prove, 


proved, 


proving, 


proven, R. 


Put, 


put, 


putting, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, 


quitting, 


quit. 


Read, 


read, 


reading, 


read. 



VERBS. 



73 



Present. 


Past. 


Imperfect Part. 


Perf. Part, 


Rend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, rid, 


riding, 


ridden, rid. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


ringing, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


Rot, 


rotted, 


rotting, 


rotten, R. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


running, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing, 


sawn, R. 


Say, 


said, 


saying, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaping, 


shapen, R. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaven, R. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shearing, 


shorn, R. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shedding, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shining, 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shooting, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


showing, 


shown, R. 


Shrink, 


shrank, shrunk, shrinking, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sang, sung, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


sliding, 


slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


slang, slung, 


slinging, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slitting, 


slit, R. 


Smell, 


smelt, R. 


smelling, 


smelt, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


smitten. 


Sow (to scatter), 


j sowed, 


sowing, 


sown, R. 


Speak, 


spake, spoke, 


speaking, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


speeding, 


sped. 


Spell, 


spelt, R. 


spelling, 


spelt, R. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spending, 
7 


spent. 



74 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Imperfect Part. 


Perf. Part. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilling, 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, span, 


spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spitting, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


splitting, 


split. 


Spoil, 


spoilt, R. 


spoiling, 


spoilt, R. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang, sprung 


springing, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


standing, 


stood. 


Stay, 


staid, R. 


staying, 


staid, R. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stinging, 


stung. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck, stricken. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving, 


striven. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewing, 


strewed, strewn. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strowing, 


strowed, strown. 


String, 


strung, 


stringing, 


strung. 


Swear, 


sware, swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, 


sweating, 


sweat. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swollen, R. 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, tare, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, throve 


thriving, 


thriven, R. 


Throw, 


threw, 


throwing, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden, trod. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


weaving, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


weeping, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, R. 


wetting, 


wet. 


Whet, 


whet, R. 


whetting, 


whet, R. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, R. 


winding, 


wound. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written. 



75 



86. Models for Exercise. 

Learn forms its past indicative, and perfect participle by 
taking ed to the present indicative. The principal parts are, 
present indicative, learn; past indicative, learned; imperfect 
participle, learning; perfect participle, learned; hence it is a 
regular verb. 

Freeze does not form its past indicative and perfect par- 
ticiple by taking ed to the present indicative. The principal 
parts are, present indicative, freeze; past indicative, froze; 
imperfect participle, freezing; perfect participle, frozen; hence 
it is an irregular verb. 

Describe the following verbs. 



Drink, 


sell, 


fall, 


run, 


rain, 


sit, 


write, 


get, 


find, 


grow, 


tell, 


shine, 


steal, 


toil, 


speak, 


hear, 


see, 


kill, 


think, 


wear, 


jump, 


eat, 


sigh, 


throw, 


know, 


crow, 


swear, 


call, 


think, 


caught, 


sleep, 


study, 


lie, 


lay, 


sit, 


set, 


raise, 


rise, 


hang. 


laugh. 



87. Yerbs Principal and Auxiliary. 

Many verbs are composed of two or more words ; in 
such verbs, the principal word is called the principal 
verb, and the others are called auxiliaries; as in the 
sentence, They have read, read is the principal verb and 
have is the auxiliary. In the sentence, He might have 
been killed, killed is the principal verb, and might, have, 
and been are the auxiliaries. 

The word auxiliary means a helper, and it is applied 
to such verbs as are used to help the principal verbs 
in forming the modes and tenses. 



76 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

88. Definitions. 

A principal Yerb is the base or principal word. A 
verb consisting of one word is a principal verb ; if the 
verb consists of two or more words, the last word is 
the principal verb. 

An auxiliary Yerb is a word or more than one 
word used to form the modes and tenses of other verbs. 

89. Models for Exercise. 

John studies. 
Studies is a verb consisting of one word ; it is, therefore, a 
principal verb. 

John might have done better. 
Might have done is a verb, consisting of three words; 
done is the principal verb, might and have are auxiliaries. 

Describe the verbs in the following. 

He is seen. You may go. You could have been 
doing something more useful. John might have writ- 
ten. The lesson has been studied. They may have 
erred. It will have been taken. The blow shall be 
struck. They compose. They increase. He has gone. 
It will be finished. She has read. He will have 
written. It rains. It thunders. It must have been 
chosen. He can come. It may be said. He is walk- 
ing. They are coming. ' It must be done. 

90. The Object of a Yerb. 

When the action expressed by a verb affects an ob- 
ject, the noun or the pronoun denoting that object is* 
called the object of the verb ; as in the sentence, The 
man plows the field, the action expressed by the verb 
ploivs affects the thing field, hence the word field is the 
object of the verb plows. 



VERBS. 77 

Fill the blanks with appropriate objects. 

The boy reads his . 

The girls found , 

John has taken my . 

The pupils recited their . 

Does he improve his ? 

He bought five of flour. 

Give William the . 

Honor thy and thy . 

Make good of your time. 

They intended to stone the . 

91. Verbs, Transitive, Intransitive, and Passive. 

A verb which expresses action affecting an object is 
a transitive verb ; as in the sentence, He rings the bell, 
the action expressed by the verb rings affect the object 
bell, hence rings is a transitive verb. 

A verb which does not express action or which 
expresses action not affecting an object, is an intran- 
sitive verb; as in the sentence, Mary was here, the verb 
was expresses being, and not action, and hence it is an 
intransitive verb ; in the sentence, The boy laughs, the 
verb laughs expresses action not affecting an object, 
and hence it is an intransitive verb. 

A verb which expresses action affecting its subject is 
a passive verb; as in the sentence, The story was told, the 
verb was told expresses action affecting its subject story, 
hence it is a passive verb. 

92. Definitions. 

The object of a verb is the noun or pronoun de- 
noting that which the action expressed by the verb 
affects ; as, Mary is singing a song. 

A transitive verb is a verb which has an object; as, 
The girl found an apple. 



78 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

An intransitive verb is a verb which has no ob- 
ject; as, The horse runs. 

A passive verb is one which represents the subject 
as acted upon ; as, The tree was shaken by the wind. 

The object of a transitive verb may be a word, a 
phrase, or a clause; as, He called a meeting. He wished 
to go. I heard what he said. 

Define the object of a verb. Give example. Define a transitive 
verb. Give example. Define an intransitive verb. Give example. 
Define a passive verb. Give example. What may the object of a 
transitive verb be? Give examples. 

93. Models for Exercise. 

Mary loves her studies, but John is idle. 
Loves expresses action which affects the object studies; 
hence it is a transitive verb. 

Is expresses being ; hence it is an intransitive verb. 

James studies diligently, and his time is well improved. 

(Studies expresses action which does not affect an object; 
hence it is an intransitive verb. 

Is improved expresses action which affects its subject time; 
hence it is a passive verb. 

Describe the verbs in the following. 

The girls found flowers. Heat melts snow. You 
speak distinctly. The trees look beautiful. The boys 
improve their time. I saw the bell. Jane has lost her 
pencil. The apples are sweet. My uncle owns a farm. 
They tried to run. Most men believe that the earth is 
round. The letter was written by a boy. He was a 
diligent pupil. You say that he is an honest boy. 
The silver cup was given to the best writer. He is 
ready to go. The blow was struck by that large boy. 



VERBS. 79 

94. Verbs, Finite and Infinitive. 

When a verb is used as the principal verb of a sen- 
tence, it is said to affirm action or being; as in the 
sentence, Flowers bloom, the verb bloom affirms action 
of flowers; in the sentence, The rose is red, the verb is 
affirms being of rose. 

Verbs frequently express action or being without 
affirming it; as in the sentence, I heard him reading, 
the verb reading expresses action, but it does not affirm 
it; and in the sentence, I wished him to be more care- 
ful, the verb be expresses being, but does not affirm it. 

95. Definitions. 

A finite verb is one which affirms action or being 
of its subject; as, Trees grow. Man is mortal. 

An infinitive verb is one which expresses action or 
being without affirming it ; as, I saw him walking. He 
wished me to go quickly. 

Questions. — What is said of a verb which is the principal verb 
in a sentence ? Give examples. What is said of verbs expressing 
action? Give examples. Define a finite verb. Give examples. 
Define an infinitive verb. Give examples. 

Fill the blanks with verbs, and tell whether they are finite or infinitive. 

The boy's ball . 

My father's house . 

Frederic the King . 

I heard the clock . 

We are glad you. 

He wishes the boy. 

James a good student. 

I found her a book. 

He was told his lesson. 

06. Properties of the Verb. 

The properties of the verb are voice, mode, tense, per- 
son, and number. 



80 PRIMAEY GRAMMAR. 

97. Of Yoice. 

The same meaning which is expressed by a sentence 
containing a transitive verb, may also be expressed by 
sentence containing a passive verb ; as, Balboa discovered 
the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean was discovered by 
Balboa. 

This difference of expression gives rise to the pro- 
perty called voice. 

A transitive verb is said to be in the active voice. 

A passive verb is said to be in the passive voice. 

The noun or pronoun which is the object when the 
active voice is used, becomes the subject when the pas- 
sive voice is used. 

In the active voice the subject is the actor. 

In the passive voice the subject is acted upon. 

98. Definitions. 

Voice is that property of the verb which shows the 
relation of the subject to the action expressed. 

The active voice represents the subject as acting; 
as, John strikes. John has struck the ball. ' 

The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
upon ; as, John is struck. John has been struck. 

Questions.— Name the properties of the verb. In what two ways 
may the same meaning be expressed? Give example. To which 
property does this difference give rise? In which voice is an active 
verb? In which voice is a passive verb? What is said of the sub- 
ject of a verb in the active voice? Of a verb in the passive voice? 

Define voice. What does the active voice represent? What does 
the passive voice represent? 

99. Models for Exercise. 
Active voice. — Mary won the cup. 
Passive voice. — The cup was won by Mary. 



VERBS. 81 

Change the active voice to the passive, and the passive voice to the active, 
in the following sentences. 

I saw the man. John reads his book. My books 
have been moved by you. The desk was broken by 
the fall. My father sent for me. James has written a 
copy. The paper was burned by Mary. I heard music. 
The sexton tolled the bell. They found beautiful 
violets. The violent wind broke the branches. The r 
family speaks French. Rome was burned by Nero. 

100. Of Mode. 

A verb may be used for different purposes : — 
1st, It may express action; as, John writes. 
2d. It may express poiver to act; as, John can ivrite. 
3d. It may express a command; as, Write carefully. 
4th. It may express action without affirming it; as, 
I saw him walk. We heard her singing. 

These different uses of the verb are called its modes. 

101. Definitions. 

Mode is that property of the verb which distin- 
guishes its various uses. 

Verbs have five modes; the indicative, the potential, 
the imperative, the infinitive, and the participial. 

The indicative mode is used to affirm action or 
being, and may be declarative or interrogative; as 
shown by the following 

Examples. 

Declarative. Interrogative. 

Action. John run*. Does John runt 

Being. John is here. Is John here? 

The potential mode is used to affirm power, neces- 
sity, possibility, will, or obligation, and may be decla- 
rative or interrogative. 

F 



82 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Examples. 



Power. 


Declarative. 

He can go. 


Interrogative. 
Can he go f 


Necessity. 
Possibility 

or 
Permission. 


He must go. 
v He may go. 


Must he go t 
May he go f 


Will. 


He would go. 


Would he go f 


Obligation. 


He should go. 


Should he go f 



The indicative mode makes the assertion chiefly 
with the principal verb ; as, John has improved. 

The potential mode makes the assertion chiefly with 
the auxiliary verb; as, John can improve. 

Examples. 

Indicative. Potential. 

John is improving. John can improve. 

Men labor. Men shoidd labor. 

James was a scholar. James might have been a scholar. 

The imperative mode is used to express a com- 
mand or petition ; as, Go. Bo go. 

The infinitive and participial modes are used to 
express action or being without affirming it. 

102. Directions for Distinguishing' the Modes. 

The indicative and potential modes are known by 
their forms as found in the conjugation. 

The imperative mode is known by the sense; as it 
always expresses a command or petition. 

The infinitive and participial modes are known by 
their use, and are distinguished from each other by 
their form. 

The infinitive mode is introduced by the word to 
expressed or understood. 

The participial mode has the form of a participle. 



Questions. — Name the different purposes for which a verb may- 
be used. Give an example illustrating each purpose. What are 
these uses of the verb called? 

Define mode. How many modes have verbs? Name them. For 
what purpose is the indicative mode used? How many forms may 
it have? Give an example of each. 

For what purposes is the potential mode used? Give an example 
illustrating each of its uses. With which part of the verb does the 
indicative mode chiefly make the assertion? With which part does 
the potential? 

For what purpose is the imperative mode used? Give examples. 
For what purpose are the infinitive and the participial modes used? 
Give examples. 

How are the indicative and potential modes known? How is 
the imperative mode known? How are the infinitive and partici- 
pial modes known? What is said of the form of the infinitive mode? 
What of the participial mode? 



103. Of Tense. 

In the sentence, The man works, or is working, the 
verb work means that the action expressed by it is now 
taking place. 

In the sentence, The man worked, the vert worked 
means that the action has been performed; i. e., it 
means past action. 

This variation of the verb to indicate the time of 
the action or being expressed by it, is called tense. 

104. Definitions. 

Time is of three kinds ; the present, the past, and the 
future. 

Tense is a property of the verb which relates to the 
time of the action or being expressed by the verb. 

Verbs have six tenses; the present, the past, the future, 
the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect. 



84 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The present tense denotes present time ; as, John 
writes; The letter is written. John is writing. 

The past tense denotes past time indefinite ; as, John 
wrote; JThe letter was written. John was writing. 

The future tense denotes future time ; as, John will 
write. The letter shall be written. 

The present perfect tense denotes past time com- 
pleted at the present; as, John has written. John has 
been writing. 

The past perfect tense denotes past time completed 
in the past ; as, John had written. John had been writing. 

The future perfect tense denotes time completed 
at a future time ; as, John will have written. John will 
have been writing. 

Obs.— The foregoing definitions apply generally to verbs in 
the indicative mode. The tenses of the other modes are for the 
most part mere forms, the time being determined by other 
words in the sentence. 

Questions. — What is said of the action expressed by the verb 
works in the sentence, The man works ? What of the action ex- 
pressed by the verb worked in the sentence, The man worked? What 
is the variation of the verb which indicates time called? How many 
kinds of time? Name each. 

Define tense. How many tenses have verbs? Name them. 
What does the present tense denote? Give examples. What 
does the past tense denote? Give examples. What does the 
future tense denote? Give examples. What does the present per- 
fect tense denote? Give examples. What does the past perfect tense 
denote? Give examples. What does the future perfect tense de- 
note? Give examples. 

105. Person and Number. 

Verbs in some of the modes and tenses have a form 
to correspond to the person and number of their sub- 



VERBS. 85 

jects; as, I am. You are. He is. The man works. 
The men work. 

These variations are called the person and number of 
the verb. 

The simple form of the verb ending in s is called the 
singular form, because it agrees only with a subject in 
the singular number; as, He walks. The boy works. 
Mary studies. 

The simple form of the verb not ending in s is called 
the plural form, because it agrees with a subject in the 
plural number; as, They icalk. The boys work. The 
pupils study. 

The plural form is not always of the plural number, 
but for convenience, it is said to be of the same person 
and number as its subject; as in the sentence, I speak; 
speak, the plural form is said to be of the first person, 
singular number. 

The plural form agrees with the pronoun you, 
although you is used in the singular as well as in the 
plural. 

The verb be forms its number and person very ir- 
regularly ; as, I am. You are. He is. I was. They 
were. 

The pronoun thou requires a peculiar form of the 
verb ; as, Thou art. Thou walkest. Thou hast'. 

The variations of person and number are confined 
to verbs which are or may be auxiliary verbs, and to 
the present indicative of principal verbs. 

106. Definitions. 

The person and number of a verb are its proper- 
ties to agree with its subject. 

Verbs, like their subjects, have three persons and two 
numbers. 



86 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



First Person. 



Second Person. 



Third Person. 



Examples. 

Singular. Plural. 

( I am, ( We are, 

\ I walk, \ We walk 

I Thou art, ( You are, 

You are, J You are, 

Thou walked, 1 You walk, 

You walk, { You w^. 

{He is, ( They are, 

He walks, ( They w/i. 



The finite verb must be of the same person and 
number as its subject. 

The second person singular of verbs is varied to cor- 
respond with the style of its subject; as, common style, 
You write; grave style, Thou writest. 

The infinite verbs have no number or person. 

Questions. — What is said of verbs in some of the modes and 
tensfcs? What is this variation of the verb called? What is the 
simple form of the verb ending in s called? Why? What is the 
simple form not ending in s called? Why? What is said of the 
plural form? Which form agrees with youl What is said of the 
verb be? What is said of the pronoun thou? To which verbs are 
the variations of person and number confined? 

Define the person and number of a verb. How many persons 
have verbs? How many numbers? What is said of the person 
and number of a finite verb ? Of infinitive verbs? 

107. Models for Exercise. 

I read. 
Read is a verb of the first person, singular number, to 
agree with its subject I. 

You learn. 
Learn is a verb of the second person, singular or plural 
number, to agree with its subject you, which has the same 
form in both numbers. 



VERBS. 87 

Thou [earnest 

Learnest is a verb of the second person, singular number, 
grave style, to agree with its subject thou. 

They are. 

Are is a verb of the third person, plural number, to agree 
with its subject they. 

Examples. 

I read. Thou readest. He reads. We hear. You 
labor. I am. He is. You are. We were. They were 
studious. You are known. They are deceived. Rain 
descends. Rains descend. The boy has a ball. My 
friends have arrived. Remember thy Creator. Cease 
to do evil, and learn to do well. Thou art wise. 

108. Conjugation. 

Conjugation is the correct expression in regular 
order of all the properties of the verb. 

The properties of the verb for the most part are 
learned from the conjugation. 

109. Conjugation of the Verb BE. 

Indicative Mode. 





Present Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Per., I am. 


1. We are. 


2c? Per., You are. 


2. You are. 


Sd Per., He is. 


3. They are. 




Past Tense. 


1. I was. 


1. We were. 


2. You were. 


2. You were. 


3. He was. 


3. They were. 



88 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. You shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been. 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were. Were I. 1. If we were. Were we. 

2. If you were. Were you. 2. If you were Were you. 

3. If he were. Were he. 3. If they were. Were they. 

Grave Style. 

Singular. 
Present Tense. Thou art. 

Past Tense. Thou wast. 

Future Tense. • Thou shalt or wilt be. 
Present Perfect Tense. Thou hast been. 

Past Perfect Tense. Thou hadst been. 

Future Perfect Tense. Thou wilt have been. 






89 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Future Tense. 
Present Perfect Tense. 
Past Perfect Tense. 
Future Perfect Tense. 



Plural. 

Ye are. 

Ye were. 

Ye shall or will be. 

Ye have been. 

Ye had been. 

Ye will have been. 



Subjunctiye Form. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 



Singular. 

If thou be. 

If thou wert. Wert thou. 



Plural. 
If ye be. 
If ye were. 



Were ye. 



Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Auxiliaries, may, can, must. Inflect with each. 



Singular. 

1. I may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 



Plural. 

1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 



Past Tense. 
Auxiliaries, might, could, would, should. Inflect with each. 



1. I might be. 

2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 



1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 

3. They might be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 
Auxiliaries, may have, can have, must have. Inflect with each. 



1. I may have been. 

2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 



1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. 

3. They may have been. 



90 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

Auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, should have. 

Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Pres. Per. Tense. 
Past Per. Tense. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Pres. Per. Tense. 
Past Per. Tense. 



Grave Style. 

Second Person, Singular. 
Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have 
been. 

Second Person, Plural. 
Ye may, can, or must be. 
Ye might, could, would, or should be. 
Ye might, can, or must have been. 
Ye might, could, would, or should have been. 



Present Tense. 



Imperative Mode. 

Singular or Plural. 
2. Be, be you, or do you be. 



Grave Style. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, be thou, or do thou be. 2. Be, be ye, or do ye be. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Pres. Tense. To be. Pres. Per. Tense. To have been. 



Participial Mode. 

Past Tense. Been, or having been. 



VERBS. 91 

110. Conjugation of the Verb LOYE, Active Yoice. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love or do love. 1. We love or do love. 

2. You love or do love. 2. You love or do love. 

3. He loves or does love. 3. They love or do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved or did love. 1. We loved or did love. 

2. You loved or did love. 2. You loved or did love. 

3. He loved or did love. 3. They loved or did love. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. ^bu shall or will love. 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. You have loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. 1 had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. You had loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. You will have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

Grave Style. 

Singular. 

Present Tense. Thou lovest or dost love. 

Past Tense. Thou lovedst or didst love. 

Future Tense. Thou shalt or wilt love. 

Present Perfect Tense. Thou hast loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. Thou hadst loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. Thou shalt or wilt have loved. 



92- PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Plural. 

Present Tense. Ye love or do love. 

Past Tense. Ye loved or did love. 

Future Tense. Ye shall or will love. 

Present Perfect Tense. Ye have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. Ye had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. Ye will have loved. 



Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Auxiliaries, may. can, mast. Inflect with each. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. You may love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 
Auxiliaries, might, could, would , should. Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. You might love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Auxiliaries, may have, can have, must have. Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. You may have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, should have. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. You might have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 



VERBS. 



93 



Grave Style. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Present Perfect Tense. 
Past Perfect Tense. 

Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Present Perfect Tense. 
Past Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 
Thou mayst love. 
Thou mightst love. 
Thou mayst have loved. 
Thou mightst have loved. 

Plural. 
Ye may love. 
Ye might love. 
Ye may have loved. 
Ye might have loved. 



Inflect with each of the other auxiliaries. 

Imperative Mode. 
Present Tense. 2. Love, love thou or you, or do thou or you love. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present Tense. To love. Present Per. Tense. To have loved. 

Participial Mode. 

Present Tense. Loving. Past Tense. Having loved. 

111. Conjugation of LOVE. Passive Yoice. 

Indicative Mode. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved. 

2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 



1. I was loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. "We are loved. 

2. You are loved. 

3. They are loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. Thev were loved. 



Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. You shall or will ho loved. 2. You shall or will ho Loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 



94 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
Auxiliaries, shall have, will have. Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. You will have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

Subjunctive Form. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense. (Singular.) 

1. If I were loved, or were I loved. 

2. If you were loved, or were you loved. 

3. If he were loved, or were he loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved, or were we loved. 

2. If you were loved, or were you loved. 

3. If they were loved, or were they loved. 

Grave Style. 

Singular. 

Present Tense. Thou art loved. 

Past Tense. Thou wast or wert loved. 

Future Tense. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. Thou hast been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. Thou hadst been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved. 



VERBS. 95 

Plural. 

Present Tense. Ye are loved. 

Past Tense. Ye were loved. 

Future Tense. Ye shall or will be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. Ye have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. Ye had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. Ye shall or will have been loved. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Auxiliaries, may, can, must. Inflect with each. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved*. 

2. You may be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 
Auxiliaries, might, could, would, should. Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. You might be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Auxiliaries, may have, can have, must have. Inflect with each. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. You may have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, should have. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. You might have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

Grave Style. 

Singular. 
Present Tense. Thou mayst be loved. 

Past Tense. Thou mightst be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. Thou mayst have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. Thou mightst have been loved. 



96 PEIMAEY GRAMMAR. 

Plural. 
Present Tense. Ye may be loved. 

Past Tense. Ye might be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. Ye may have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. Ye might have been loved. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense, Singular or Plural. 
2. Be loved, be thou or you loved, or do thou or you be loved. 

Infinitive Mode. 

• Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 

Participial Mode. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 

Being loved. Loved, having been loved. 

112. Of the Forms of the Tenses. 

Verbs in the formation of their tenses have three 
forms, — the common, the progressive, and the passive. 

- The common form is the form most commonly 
used ; as, work, have worked. 

The progressive form is made by prefixing some 
part of the verb be, as an auxiliary, to the imperfect par- 
ticiple of another verb ; as in the sentence John is work- 
ing, the verb is working is formed by prefixing the suffix 
is, which is a form of the verb be, to working which is the 
imperfect participle of the verb work, hence is working 
is the progressive form of the verb work. 

The passive form is made by prefixing some part 
of the verb be, to the perfect participle of a transitive 
verb; as in the sentence, I am deceived, the verb am 



VERBS. 97 

deceived is formed by prefixing am, which is a form of 
the verb be, to deceived, which is the perfect participle 
of the transitive verb deceive, hence am deceived is the 
passive form of the verb deceive. 

Transitive verbs have the three forms. 

Intransitive verbs have only two forms, the common 
and the progressive, except the verb be, which has only 
the common form. 

Each form of the verb may be used in two senses ; 
the declarative and the interrogative. 

To give a synopsis of a verb is to express its modes 
and tenses in one person, number and form. 

Questions. How many forms have verbs in the formation of their 
tenses ? Name these forms. In how many and what senses may 
each form be used? What is the common form? How is the pro- 
gressive form made? Give example. How is the passive form 
made ? Give example. What verbs have all three forms ? How 
many and which forms have intransitive verbs ? What is it to give 
a synopsis of a verb ? 

113. Synopses. 

A synopsis of a verb is the expression of its tenses 
in one mode, form, person, and number. 

The forms of the modes and tenses may be learned 
by studying the following synopsis. 

114. Synopsis of the verb MOVE. 

Indicative Mode, Common Form. 

Declarative. 

Present Tense, It moves or does move. 

Past Tense. It moved or did move. 

Future Tense. It shall or will move. 

Present Perfect Tense. It has moved. 

Past Perfect Tense. It had moved. 

Future Perfect Tense. It shall or will have moved. 



98 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Future Tense. 
Present Perfect Tense. 
Past Perfect Tense. 
Future Perfect Tense. 



Interrogative. 

Does it move? 

Did it move? 

Shall or will it move ? 

Has it moved? 

Had it moved ? 

Shall or will it have moved ? 



Progressive Form. 

Declarative. 

Present Tense. It is moving. 

Past Tense. It was moving. 

Future Tense. It shall or will be moving. 

Pres. Perf. Tense. It has been moving. 

Past Perf. Tense. It had been moving. 

Fut. Perf. Tense. It shall or will have been moving. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Future Tense. 
Pres. Perf Tense. 
Past Perf Tense. 
Fut. Perf Tense. 



Present Tense. 
Past Tense. 
Future Tense. 
Pres. Perf. Tense. 
Past Perf. Tense. 
Fut Perf Tense. 



Interrogative. 

Is it moving? 
Was it moving? 
Shall or will it be moving? 
Has it been moving ? 
. Had it been moving ? 

Shall or will it have been moving ? 

Passive Form. 

Declarative. 

It is moved. 

It was moved. 

It shall or will be moved. 

It has been moved. 

It had been moved. 

It shall or will have been moved. 



VERBS. 99 

Interrogative. 

Present Tense. Is it moved ? 

Past Tense. Was it moved ? 

Future Tense. Shall or will it be moved ? 

Pres. Perf. Tense. Has it been moved ? 

Past Perf. Tense. Had it been moved ? 

Fut. Perf. Tense. Shall or will it have been moved ? 

Potential Mode. Common Form. 

Declarative. 

Present Tense. It may, can, or must move. 
Past Tense. It might, could, would, or should move. 

Pres. Perf. Tense. It may, can, or must have moved. 
Past Perf Tense. It might, could, would, or should have 
moved. 

Interrogative. 

Present Tense. May, can, or must it move ? 
Past Tense. Might, could, would, or should it move ? 

Pres. Perf Tense. May, can, or must it have moved ? 
Past Perf. Tense. Might, could, would, or should it have 
moved ? 

Progressive Form. 
Declarative. 

Present Tense. It may, can, or must be moving. 
Past Tense. It might, could, would, or should be moving. 

Pres. Perf. Tense. It may, can, or must have been moving. 
Past Perf Tense. It might, could, would, or should have been 
moving. 

Interrogative. 

Present Tense. May, can, or must it be moving ? 
Past Tense. Might, could, would, or should it be moving? 

Pres. Perf. Tense. May, can, or must it have been moving? 
Past Perf. Tense. Might, could, would, or should it have been 
moving? 



100 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Passive Form. 

Declarative. 

Present Tense. It may, can, or must be moved. 
Past Tense. It might, could, would, or should be moved. 

Pres. Perf. Tense. It may, can, or must have been moved. 
Past Perf. Tense. It might, could, would, or should have been 
moved. 

Interrogative. 

Present Tense. May, can, or must it be moved ? 
Past Tense. Might, could, would, or should it be moved ? 

Pres. Perf. Tense. May, can, or must it have been moved ? 
Past Perf. Tense. Might, could, would, or should it have been 
moved ? 

Imperative Mode. 

Common Form. 

Present Tense. Move, or do move. 

Progressive Form. 

Present Tense. Be moving, or do be moving. 

Passive Form. 

Present Tense. Be moved, or do be moved. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Common Form. 

Present Tense. To move. 
Pres. Perf. Tense. To have moved. 

Progressive Form. 

Present Tense. To be moving. 

Pres. Perf. Tense. To have been moving. 

Passive Form. 

Present Tense. To be moved. 

Pres. Perf Tense. To have been moved. 



VERBS. 101 

Participial Mode. 
Common Form, 

Present Tense. Moving. 

Past Tense. Moved, or having moved 

Passive Form. 

Present Tense. Being moved. 

Past Tense. Having been moved. 

115. Models for Parsing the Yero. 

James went to the exhibition. 

Went is a verb, irregular, intransitive ; in the indicative 
mode, past tense ; and of the third person, singular number, 
to agree with its subject John; Rule IX. — The finite verb must 
agree with its subject in person and number. 

Synopsis. — Indicative mode, common form, declarative 
sense, third person, and singular number. Present, he goes ; 
past, he went ; future, he shall or will go ; present perfect, he 
has gone ; past perfect, he had gone ; future perfect, he shall or 
will have gone. 

Questions. — Why is went a verb ? Why an irregular verb ? Why 
an intransitive verb ? Why is it in indicative mode ? Why is it 
of the present tense ? Why is it third person and singular num- 
ber? Why is John its subject? 

See the sun setting. 
See is a verb, irregular, transitive; in the imperative mode, 
present tense ; and of the second person and singular or plural 
number, to agree with its subject you, understood ; Rule IX. 

Synopsis. — Imperative mode, common form, second per- 
son, singular or plural number. Present, see you or do you 
see. 

Questions. — Why is see a verb? Why an irregular verb? Why 
a transitive verb? Why in the imperative mode? Why of the 
present tense ? Why of the second person ? Why of the singular 
or plural number ? 



102 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Setting is a verb, irregular, intransitive; in the participial 
mode, present tense, and relates to the noun sun for its sub- 
ject ; Rule XIII. — An infinitive verb must relate to a noun or 
pronoun as its subject 

Synopsis. — Participial mode. Present, setting; past, set, 
or having set. 

I may be working. 

May be working is a verb, regular, intransitive ; in the 
potential mode, present tense ; and of the first person and 
singular number, to agree with its subject /; Rule IX. 

Synopsis. — Potential mode, progressive form. Present, I 
may, can, or must be working ; past, I might, could, would, 
or should be working ; present perfect, I may, can, or must 
have been working ; past perfect, I might, could, would, or 
should have been working. 

Were you seen there? 
Were seen is a verb, irregular, passive ; in the indicative 
mode, past tense ; and of the second person and plural num- 
ber, to agree with its subject you; Rule IX. {Give Synopsis.) 

116. Models for Substantives after Intransitive Verbs. 

Trees are plants. 
Plants is a noun, common ; of the neuter gender, third 
person, and plural number, and in the nominative case after 
the intransitive verb are, according to Rule VII. — Intransi- 
tive and passive verbs must have the same case after as before 
them, when both words refer to the same thing. 

He was called John. 
John is a noun, proper ; of the masculine gender, third 
person, and singular number; and in the nominative case 
after the passive verb was called, according to Rule VII. 

Parse the verbs in the following. 

The boy writes. The boy is writing. The letter is 
written. Is he improving? Bid him come. I saw 



t ADVERBS. 103 

him coming. Can he learn? Could they be found? 
Let him go. The sun having risen, we departed. 
Did you see the cars run ? It might be done. It will 
be finished. He must have been chosen. What did 
you say ? Can it be possible ? 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. 

Franklin was a wise man. Mary is a kind girl. The 
mind is the standard of the man. He was called a 
philosopher. Napoleon was made emperor. General 
Scott was commander-in-chief of the Army of the 
United States. Thou art the man. This is the house. 

That man fell. They have come. Will you go? 
The boys may stay. Snow has fallen. Close the door. 
I saw the broken window. Did you see the ball? 
Can you play ball ? Children ought to be kind. We 
saw him walking. Our lessons have been recited. 
You must be more careful. This pencil is broken. 
The farm is to be sold. It may be bought for two 
thousand dollars. He strives hard to succeed. Suc- 
cess may be obtained. 

My son, obey my commandments. Did you see the 
cars running ? Do good to them that hate you. Bid 
him come to me. You should honor and obey your 
parents. They refusing to comply, I withdrew. Both 
of you knew better than to do that. The lady whom 
you have seen resides in the city. England, on that 
fatal day, beheld her bravest laid low. Thou knowest 
all things, and wilt judge every man according to his 
work. 

117. Of the Adverb. 

In the sentence, The river runs rapidly, the word 
rapidly modifies the meaning of the verb run*, and is 
called an adverb. 



104 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

In the sentence, The apple was very sweet, the word 
very modifies the meaning of the adjective sweet, and is 
called an adverb. 

In the sentence, He acted very prudently, the word 
prudently modifies the meaning of the verb acted, and 
the word very modifies the meaning of the adverb 
prudently, and both words are adverbs. 

Words used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjec- 
tives, or other adverbs are called adverbs. 

They are called adverbs, because they are frequently 
added to verbs. 

118. Definition and Classification. 

An adverb is a part of speech used to modify the 
sense of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, 
He will not go. He is very sick. He writes very well. 

The principal classes of adverbs are — 

1. Of manner: as, wisely, quickly, justly. 

2. Of degree or quantity ; as, much, very, enough. 

3. Of place ; as, here, near, anywhere. 

4. Of time; as, now, when, yesterday. 

5. Of number ; as, once, thrice. 

6. Of order ; as, first, next, lastly. 

7. Of doubt ; as, perhaps, possibly. 

8. Of negation ; as, nay, no, not. 

9. Of affirmation ; as, yes, yea. 

Adverbs of manner generally answer to the question 
how? 

Adverbs of degree or quantity generally answer to 
the question how much? 

Adverbs of place generally answer to the question 
where? 

Adverbs of time generally answer to the question 
when ? 



ADVERBS. 



105 



Adverbs are used to ask questions similar to those 
which they are used to answer ; as, When will he come? 
Where did he go ? 

119. Comparison of Adyerbs. 

Many adverbs may be compared in the same man- 
ner as adjectives; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; 
soon, sooner, soonest; little, less, least. 

A few are irregularly compared ; as, — 

Superlative. 

best, 
worst, 
most, 
most justly. 

Questions. — What does rapidly do in the sentence, The river 
runs rapidly? What is it called? What is said of very in the sen- 
tence,' The apple was very sweet f What is it called? What is said 
of very and prudently in the sentence, He acted very prudently ? 
What is each called ? What are words which modify the sense of 
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs called ? Why are they so called ? 

Define an adverb. Give an example. Ex. — In the sentence, 
You are late, late modifies the meaning of the verb are, hence it is 
an adverb. 

Name the principal classes of adverbs. 

Tell the class of the following' adverbs. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Well, 


better, 


Badly, 


worse, 


Much, 


more, 


Justly, 


more justly, 



Early, 


fourthly, 


monthly, 


almost, 


downward, 


seldom, 


backwards, 


justly, 


probably, 


more, 


to-morrow, 


not, 


lately, 


never, 


always, 


soon, 


meanly, 


nowhere, 


happily, 


so. 



120. Models for parsing adverbs. 

The man walks sloivly, for* he is very old. 
Slowly is an adverb of manner, and modifies the verb 
walks; Rule XIV. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 



106 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Very is an adverb of degree, and modifies the adjective 
old; Kule XIV. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences. 

The pupils study diligently. They will return to-day. 
This can never be done. I will see him there. The 
bird sings very sweetly. Is he always ready? William 
was very kind. We read no more that day. Great 
men are not always wise. First she walked, and then 
she ran. Why chime the bells so merrily? The 
weather is extremely cold. I was much amused at 
your conduct. I cannot think so meanly of him. I 
was scarcely sensible of motion. 

121. Of the Preposition. 

In the sentence, the love of wisdom leads to happi- 
ness, the word of shows the relation between love and 
ivisdom, and is called a proposition; the word to shows 
the relation between leads and happiness, and is called 
a preposition. 

Preposition means placed before, and these words are 
so called, because they are frequently placed before 
nouns and pronouns. 

This substantive which follows a preposition is called 
its object; as, in the sentence, He lives in Pittsburgh, the 
noun Pittsburgh is the object of the preposition in. 

A preposition shows the relation of its object to some 
other word. 

122. Definitions. 

A preposition is a* part of speech used to show the 
relation of a noun or a pronoun to some other word ; 
as, The owner of the house lives in the city ; Walk be- 
fore him. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



107 



The object of a preposition is the substantive which 
follows it ; as, He went into the house. We spoke to 
him. Some of the words most commonly used as pre- 
positions are : — 



About, 


at, 


by, 


on, 


under, 


above, 


athwart, 


concerning, 


over, 


underneath, 


across, 


before, 


down, 


respecting, 


until, 


after, 


behind, 


during, 


round, 


unto, 


against, 


below, 


except, 


since, 


up, 


along, 


beneath, 


excepting, 


through, 


upon, 


amid, 


beside, 


for, 


throughout, 


with, 


amidst, 


besides, 


from, 


till, 


within, 


among, 


between, 


in, 


to, 


without, 


amongst, 


betwixt, 


into, 


toward, 


worth. 


around, 


beyond, 


of, 


towards, 





-What is said of the words of and to in the sentence, 
The love of wisdom leads to happiness ? What are these words 
called? What is the meaning of the word preposition? Why are 
they so called? What is the object of a preposition? Between 
what does a preposition show the relations ? 

Define a preposition. Give an example. Ex. — In the sentence, 
Go into the house, into shows the relation between go and house, 
hence it is a preposition. 

Define the object of a preposition. Name a few of the principal 
prepositions. 

123. Models for Parsing Prepositions. 

I spoke of my brother who lives in Troy. 
Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between spoke 
and its object brother; Rule XV. — Prepositions connect words, 
and show the relation between them. 

In is a preposition, and shows the relation between lives 
and its object, Troy ; Rule XV. 

Parse the Prepositions in the following sentences. 

He went up the road. The vessel sailed from New 
York. He fell under the table. With whom do } r ou 



108 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

live ? May I sit beside John ? He lies at rest in the 
old churchyard. Divide the marbles between the boys. 
Pass into the room. Every change is not a change for 
the better. His hat is under his arm. They will walk 
from Pittsburgh to Cincinnati. Hope comes with smiles 
to cheer the hour of pain. 

124. Of the Conjunction. 

In the sentence, John or James may stay, or connects 
the words John and James. 

In the sentence, He loved to walk and to talk, and 
connects the phrases to walk and to talk. 

In the sentence, He knows his duty, but he does not 
do it, but connects the clause, He knows his duty, to the 
clause he does not do it. 

Words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses are 
called conjunctions. 

Conjunction means joining together; and this part of 
speech is so called because it is used to join together 
the elements of the sentence. 

Definition and Examples. 

A conjunction is a part of speech used to connect 
words, phrases, and clauses ; as, — 

Connecting words. — Mary or I will go. He spoke to 
the boys and the girls. Both Charles and his brother are 
going. 

Connecting phrases. — He began to write and to study. 
They walked through fire and through water. 

Connecting clauses. — I will come, if you can stay. He 
"will succeed, because he labors. Though he should slay, yet 
will I trust in him. 

Questions. — For what purpose is or used in the sentence, John 
or James may go? For what purpose is and used in the next 



INTERJECTIONS. . 109 

sentence? For what purpose is but used in the next sentence? 
What are words used to connect words, phrases, and clauses called? 
What does the word conjunction mean? 

Define conjunction. Give an example which connect words. 
Which connects phrases. Which connects clauses. 

125. Models for Parsing Conjunctions. 

John and James are happy, because they are good. 

And is a conjunction, and connects the words John and 
James ; Rule XVI. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and 
clauses. 

Because is a conjunction, and connects the clause John 
and James are happy to the clause they are good ; Rule XVI. 

He is learning to sing and to play. 
And is a conjunction, and connects the phrase to sing to 
the phrase to play ; Rule XVI. 

Parse the conjunctions and then all the words. 

Bring the book and the slate. Be careful, or you will 
fall. He may go, but you must remain at home. He 
is wise and good. I will go when you return. He is 
penitent, while he is sick. He learns rapidly, because 
he is diligent. He borrowed the book, that he might 
read it. You must take it, for I wish you to use it. 
John or you must go. He visited the Parks and the 
Museum. He commenced to teach and to preach. He 
acted wisely and justly. 

126. Of the Interjection. 

Some words are used to indicate emotion or merely 
to cry out; as in the sentence, Alas! he knows not the 
danger, the word alas is used to express the emotion of 
grief; in the sentence, Hurrah! the day is our own, the 
word hurrah is used to express the emotion of joy; and 



110 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

in the sentence, Hallo ! come here, the word hallo is used 
simply to make a noise for the purpose of arresting at- 
tention. 

Words used to express emotion or to cry out are ex- 
clamatory words, and they are called interjections. 

Interjection means thrown betiveen, and these words 
are so called, because they are frequently thrown be- 
tween the parts of a sentence. 

127. Definition and Classification. 

An interjection is a part of speech used to express 
some emotion of the mind ; as, ah ! oh ! alas ! 

The principal classes of interjections are — 

1. Of sorrow; as, ah! alas! alack! 

2. Of wonder; as, oh! strange! really! 

3. Of calling ; as, ho ! hallo ! 

4. Of exultation ; as, aha ! huzza ! hurrah ! 

5. Of laughter ; as, ha, ha, ha ! lie, he y he ! 

6. Of salutation ; as, hail! all hail! 

7. Of attention; as, lo! behold! hark! 

8. Of silence; as, hush! hist! mum! 

9. Of disgust ; as, fie! fudge! 



Questions. — What is said of Alas in the sentence given? What 
is said of hurrah in the sentence given? What is said of hallo in 
the sentence given? What kind of words are these? What are 
they called? What does interjection mean? Why are these words 
called interjections? 

Define an interjection. Name the principal classes, and one or 
two examples in each class. 

128. Models for Parsing Interjections. 

Huzza! they come. 
Huzza is an interjection of exultation, and is independent 
of the other words ; Rule XVII. — Interjections have no gram- 
matical relation to the other words. 



EXPLETIVES. Ill 

Parse the interjections, then all the words. 

Behold ! he is here. Oh Mary ! how kind you are ! 
Alas ! that great city has been destroyed. Indeed ! does 
he expect me? Avaunt! let the grave hide thee! 
Zounds! how stupid you are! Hush! J will not 
hear it. 

129. Of the Expletive. 

In the sentence, There was a strange man in the 
house, there is used to fill up the sentence, and to 
render it agreeable to the ear, and it is called an ex- 
pletive. 

A word used to fill up a sentence, and to render it 
agreeable to the ear without affecting its meaning is 
an expletive. 

130. Definition. 

An expletive is a part of a speech used in a sen- 
tence to give it fullness or to render it agreeable to the 
ear, without affecting the meaning. 

131. Model for Parsing-. 

There is a rap on the door. 
There in this sentence is an expletive used to render the 
sound of the sentence agreeable. 

It was you yourself. 
Yourself in this sentence is an expletive used to give 
fullness to the sentence. 

Parse the expletives in the following-. 

There is gold in Australia. Is not some one gently 
rapping, rapping at my chamber, at my door? There 
must be no idlers here. The boy himself acknowledges 
the fault. Down, down the tempest plunges to the sea. 
Work, work, ivork in the dull December light. There 
was a good spring there. 



112 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



132. Words used as Different Parts of Speech. 

The same word may be a different part of speech in 
different sentences ; as, — 

1. Fast is a word of four letters. 2. He keeps a, fast 
horse. 3. They fast often. 4. He can run fast. 

In the first sentence, the word fast is a noun ; in the 
second, it is an adjective; in the third, it is a verb; and 
in the fourth, it is an adverb. 

The following are some of the words which are 
frequently used as different parts of speech. 

A 1st. An adjective ; as I saw a man. 

2d. A preposition ; as, He went a hunting. 

3d. A part of a complex adjective ; as, A few days. 
Alone. . 1st. An adjective ; as, The boy alone studies. 

2d. An adverb ; as, The boy studies alone. 
But. • . 1st. A conjunction ; as, I go, but I return. 

2d. An adverb ; as, He was absent but two days. 

3d. A preposition ; as, All but him had fled. 
Close. • 1st. A verb ; as They close their eyes. 

2d. A noun ; as, At the close of the performance. 

3d. An adverb ; as, She lived close to the church. 
Fast. • • 1st. A noun ; as, With him it is either a fast or feast. 

2d. A verb ; as, They fast often. 

3d. An adjective ; as, He keeps a, fast horse. 

4th. An adverb ; as, She walks too fast 
Like. . . 1st. A noun ; as, I never saw the like. 

2d. A verb ; as, They like the business. 

3d. An adjective or preposition ; as, It was like gold. 

In the third example, like is generally classed as an 
adjective, to or unto being supplied to govern 
gold; but it may be classed as a preposition. 
Near.. . 1st. An adjective ; as, He was a near friend. 

2d. An adverb ; as, Draw near and listen. 

3d. A preposition ; as, He lives near the Park. 

4th. A verb ; as, The vessels near the landing. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 113 

Since. . 1st. A preposition ; as, It happened since morning. 
2d. A conjunction; as, Since I must go, I will start. 
3d. An adverb ; as, I have not seen him since. 
That. . . 1st. A relative pronoun ; as, All that come are 

welcome. 
2d. A definitive pronoun; as, This rule is better 

than that. 
3d. A definitive adjective ; as, Give me that book. 
4th. A conjunction ; as, I study that I may improve. 
What. . 1st. A relative pronoun ; as, I know what he wants. 
2d. An interrogative pronoun; as, What do you 

want ? z- 

3d. A definitive adjective ; as, WJiat places did you 

visit ? 
4th. An adjective and a pronoun ; as, Take ivhat 

money you want ; i.e. Take that money which you 

want. 
5th. An adverb ; as, What by the fire, and ivhat by 

the sword. 
6th. An interjection ; as, What! is all lost? 
While. . 1st. A noun ; as, For a while he seemed satisfied. 

2d. A conjunctive adverb ; as, He went while it was 

yet quite dark. 
3d. A verb ; as, Do not while away your time. 
Worth. 1st. A noun ; as, He was a man of worth. 

2d. A preposition ; as, The book is worth a dollar. 
3d. A verb ; as, Woe worth the day. — Obsolete. 
Yet. . . • 1st. An adverb ; as, He will succeed yet. 

2d. A conjunction ; as, Though he slay jne, yet will 

I trust in him. 

133. Rules of Syntax. 

Rules of Government. 

Rule I. — The subject of the finite verb is in the 
nominative case. 

H 10* 



114 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Rule II. — A noun or pronoun in apposition is in the 
same case as the substantive which it limits. 

Rule III. — A noun or pronoun denoting possession 
is in the possessive case. 

Rule IV. — The object of a transitive verb is in the 
objective case. 

Rule V. — The object of a preposition is in the ob- 
jective case. 

Rule VI. — A noun or pronoun not otherwise gov- 
erned is in the absolute case. 

Rule VIL — Intransitive and passive verbs have 
the same case after as before them, when both words 
refer to the same thing. 

Rules of Agreement. 

Rule VIII. — Pronouns must agree with their sub- 
stantives in gender, person, and number. 

Rule IX. — The finite verb must agree with its sub- 
ject in person and number. 

Rule X. — When two or more singular nouns or pro- 
nouns are taken together, a verb or pronoun, to agree 
with them, must be plural. 

Rule XI. — When two or more singular nouns or 
pronouns are taken separately, a verb or pronoun, to 
agree with them, must be singular. 

Rules of Relation. 

Rule XII. — Adjectives limit substantives. 

Rule XIII. — An infinitive verb must relate to a 
noun or pronoun as its subject. 

Rule XIV. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs. 

Rule XV. — Prepositions connect words and show the 
relation between them. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 115 

Rule XVI. — Conjunctions unite words, phrases, and 
clauses. 

Rule XVII. — Interjections have no grammatical 
relation to other words. 

Parse the words in italics first, then parse all the words. 

He heard a loud noise. You speak too loud. Let 
us walk over the bridge. Turn the leaf over. Still, I 
wish to go. This is a calm, still night. He could still 
the raging storm. The soldiers marched up the hill. 
Keep up in the march. 

We know the man well. The waters well up from 
the fountain. Are you well? We shall hail it gladly. 
Hail! holy light! We gathered the ftaiZ-stones. Rain 
and hail beat upon his lonely tomb. Is he ivorse than 
he was yesterday ? He tries to do worse. 

This is the very boy you need. I am very glad to see 
you. He has done his best. You know best what I 
should do. That boy can do the work. I heard that 
John is sick. Where is the house that you saw? That 
is the book I want. That is a common word. 

A last is used in making shoes. Who came last? 
My brother came last week. These skates will last 
until then. Is this your first copy ? John was in the 
room first. The first shall receive the prize. Mary 
walked before me. I heard it before. Parse before. 
We live in a stone house. He broke the pane with a 
stone. We expect to stone the old house. 

Do not stay long. We walked down the long lane. 
We long to see him. If you go so will I. Leave out 
the if. They fast often. Stand fast. He keeps a fast 
horse. I will set a chair for you. It is a set custom. 
He bought a set of china. 



116 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

134. The Proposition. 

In the sentence, Trees grow, the word trees denotes 
that of which something is said, and it is called the 
subject; the word grow denotes that which is said of 
trees, and it is called the predicate. The expression, 
Trees grow is called a proposition, because it contains a 
subject and a predicate. 

Some propositions contain an object; as in the sen- 
tence, John studies grammar, grammar is the object, 
because it is in the objective case governed by the pre- 
dicate studies. 

Ofos. — The terms subject, predicate, and object, are usually 
understood to mean the words, and not the things represented 
by the words; as in the sentence, John studies grammar, the 
subject is the word John, and not the person John; and the 
predicate is the word studies, and not the act of studying, 
and the object is the word grammar and not the science of 
grammar. 





135. 


Exercise. 


Form propositions by writing a predicate 


to each of the following subjects. 


Rivers flow. 






The boy studies. 


William . 






Good children . 


Horses . 






The boy's ball . 


Flowers . 






The man's horse . 


Rain . 






Wise pupils . 


Trees . 






The sun . 


Water . 






Mary's brother . 


Snow . 






The lady's bird — — . 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 117 

Form propositions by writing a subject to each of the following predicates. 

Mary is studying. The bird sings. 

melts. may be found. 

has been lost. is coming. 

has improved. are blooming. 

was written. have gone. 

will be going. recited. 

must recite. heard. 

is prepared. can remain. 

137. Affirmation. 

That which is expressed by a sentence is said to be 
affirmed; as in the sentence, The sun shines, shines is 
affirmed of sun. 

That which is expressed by a word or a phrase is 
not affirmed ; as in the expression, The running stream, 
running is assumed of stream, and not affirmed. 

Affirm may mean to declare, to inquire, or to com- 
mand; as, The boys write. Can the boys write? Write 
carefully. 

138. Definitions. 

A proposition is a group of words which contains 
a subject and a predicate ; as, The sea is roaring. 

The subject is an expression denoting that of which 
something is affirmed : it may be : — 

A noun ; as, Horses run. 

A pronoun; as, They are coming. 

A phrase ; as, To play is pleasant. 

A proposition ; as, Ww did it is not known. 

The predicate is an expression used to affirm some- 
thing of that which the subject represents; it may be: — 
A verb ; as, America ivas discovered. 
A verb and its complement; as, Men are mortal. 



118 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The complement is another part of speech used 
with the verb to express the affirmation ; it may be : — 

A noun; as, Trees are plants. 
A pronoun ; as, It is he. 
An adjective: as He is kind. 
An adverb ; as, John will be here. 
A phrase; as, He was to be at home. 
A clause ; as, It is as you stated. 

A substantive complement is always in the nomina- 
tive case, and it is called the predicate nominative. 

The object of a proposition is an expression in 
the objective case after the predicate verb; it may be: — 

A noun ; as, We love truth. 

A pronoun ; as, I saw him. 

A phrase ; as, He loves to study. 

A elause ; as, He said that I might go. 

139. Exercise. 

Complete the propositions by writing a complement in each of the following 
expressions. 

Gold is precious. Trees are . 

The grass is . The day is . 

Mary is . He is the . 

Will he be ? His name was 

The berries are . Were you ? 

Complete the propositions by writing an object in each of the following 
expressions. 

He loves play. He called . 

They study . John has written . 

We found . I know . 

The boys are playing . Do you wish ? 

Mary saw . The girl has taken . 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 119 

140. Propositions, Transitive, and Intransitive. 

A proposition which contains an object is a transi- 
tive proposition; as, Children should love their 
parents. 

A proposition which does not contain an object is 
an intransitive proposition; as, Mary is singing. 

141. Models for Exercise. 

John may go. 
This expression contains a subject and a predicate, hence 
it is a proposition ; it contains no object, hence it is an in- 
transitive proposition ; John denotes that of which something 
is affirmed, hence it is the subject; may go denotes that which 
is affirmed, hence it is the predicate. 

Iron is useful. 
This expression contains a subject and a predicate, hence 
it is a proposition; it contains no object, hence it is an intran- 
sitive proposition ; Iron denotes that of which something is 
affirmed, hence it is the subject; is useful denotes that which 
is affirmed, hence it is the predicate ; is is the verb, and useful^ 
an adjective, is the complement. 

They study grammar. 
This expression contains a subject and a predicate, hence 
it is a proposition ; it contains an object, hence it is a transi- 
tive proposition ; They denotes that of which something is 
affirmed, hence it is the subject; study denotes that which is 
affirmed ; hence it is the predicate ; grammar denotes that 
which they study, hence it is the object. 

Describe the following expressions according" to the models. 

They have come. Roses are beautiful. John saw 
Mary. Is James diligent ? We found violets. John 
has gone. They are studying- Study your lessons. 
Gold is precious. Will you hear me ? John has been 



120 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

industrious. To sing is pleasant. They love to study. 
Could he have written? We saw Grant. We have 
been attentive. He must have been struck. Heat 
melts snow. Will you go ? Write. Go. 

142. Of Adjuncts or Modifiers. 

Expressions joined to the parts of a proposition to 
vary the meaning are called modifiers or adjuncts. 

The modifiers or adjuncts are said to limit the parts 
to which they are joined; as, in the sentence, Good 
children always love their parents, good is a modifier, 
limiting the subject children; always is a modifier, 
limiting the predicate love; and their is a modifier, 
limiting the object parents. 

143. Definitions. 

An expression is a word or a group of words. 

An adjunct or modifier is an expression used to 
vary the meaning of some other expression. 

A possessive is a substantive in the possessive case; 
as, This is John's hat. 

An appositive is a substantive in apposition; as, 
His daughter Sarah sings. 

A substantive is a noun or a pronoun, or any ex- 
pression used as a noun; as, James is happy. He is 
happy. To be good is to be happy. 

144. Models for Exercise. 

John's book is lost 

This is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 

predicate ; it is an intransitive proposition, because it contains 

no object. Book is the subject, because it denotes that of 

which something is affirmed; it is limited by John's, a pos- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 121 

sessive. Is lost is the predicate, because it denotes that which 
is affirmed. 

My sister Mary has gone. 

This is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 
predicate; it is an intransitive proposition, because it contains 
no object. Sister is the subject, because it denotes that of 
which something is affirmed ; it is limited by my, sl possessive, 
and by Mary, an appositive. Has gone is the predicate, be- 
cause it denotes that which is affirmed. 



5 pupils prepare their recitations very carefully. 
This is a proposition, because it contains a subject and a 
predicate ; it is a transitive proposition, because it contains an 
object. Pupils is the subject, because it denotes that of which 
something is affirmed; it is limited by wise, an adjective. 
Prepare is the predicate, because it denotes that which is 
affirmed of the subject, it is limited by carefully, an adverb, 
which is limited by very, an adverb. Recitations is the object, 
because it denotes that which the pupils prepare; it is limited 
by their, a possessive. 

Describe the following propositions according to the models. 

Our friends are coming. The bird took its flight. 
Govern your passions. They improve rapidly. Mary, 
the diligent student, is absent. The lion followed the 
hunter. It cannot be he. This work must be done 
quickly. You have recited your lesson very w T ell. A 
kind look gladdens the heart. I, James, wall bring your 
books. I am extremely weary. He does not like study. 

Is not honesty the best policy? Be wise to-day. 
Coming events cast their shadows before. Wise kings 
rule nations prudently. To teach requires skill, [lead- 
ing is a profitable exercise. The elephant's tusk is 
white. John has found a gold dollar. My oldest 
brother's son is quite sick. Cicero the orator was slain. 
The truly good are always loved. Java coffee is ex- 
cellent. Study diligently. Read distinctly. 



122 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

145. Elements of Sentences. 

Before studying: what follows the article on sentences, page 
10, should be reviewed. 

Each part of a sentence which performs a distinct 
office is called an element of the sentence; as in the 
sentence, Columbus discovered America, Columbus per- 
forms the office of subject, hence it is an element; 
discovered performs the office of predicate, hence it is 
an element, and America performs the office of object, 
hence it is an element. 

An element composed of a single part of speech is 
called a word element. 

An element composed of two or more parts of speech, 
not forming a proposition, is called a phrase element; as, 
Lincoln was president of the United States. 

An element composed of a proposition is called a 
clause element; as, That he is guilty is evident. 

146. Definitions. 

An element of a sentence is a part of a sentence 
having a distinct office ; as in the sentence, Men work, 
men is the subject element, and ivork is the predicate 
element. 

Elements with respect to form, are of three kinds, 
called the word element, the phrase element, and the 
clause element. 

The word element is an element consisting of a 
single part of speech. 

The phrase element is an element consisting of 
two or more parts of speech not forming a proposition. 

The clause element is an element containing a 
proposition. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 123 

147. Elements with respect to Office. 

An element used as the subject of a proposition is a 
subject element; as, Snow covered the hills. 

An element used as the predicate of a proposition is 
a predicate element ; as, She sang well. 

An element used as the object of a proposition is an 
objective element; as, They found the spring. 

An element which is used to limit a substantive is an 
adjective element; as, He is a wise man. He is a 
man of wisdom. The marts horse runs. 

An element which is used as an adverb is an 
adverbial element; as, He writes beautifully. He 
writes with a pen. 

An adverb is used to modify a verb, an adjective, or 
other adverb. 

An element which is used to connect expressions is 
a connective element!; as, John and James are com- 
ing. William plays while Mary sings. 

Elements with respect to office are of six kinds, called 
the subject element, the predicate element, the objective 
element, the adjective element, the adverbial element, 
and the connective element. 

The subject, the predicate, and the object are called 
principal elements, because they are used to form 
the base of the sentence. 

The adjective, the adverbial, and the connective 
elements are called subordinate elements, because 
they are used to limit or conect other elements. 

148. Phrase Elements. 

Phrase elements with respect to form are of four 
kinds, called the infinitive phrase, the prepositional 
phrase, the absolute phrase, and the participial phrase. 



124 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Each may be distinguished by its base or principal 
part. 

The infinitive phrase is a phrase which has for its 
base or principal part a verb in the infinitive mode ; 
as, I am willing to go there. ^ 

The prepositional phrase is a phrase which has 
for its base the object of a preposition ; as, He went to 
Pittsburgh. 

The absolute phrase is a phrase which has for its 
base a noun or pronoun in the absolute case before a 
participle; as, The army being conquered, the general 
fled. 

The participial phrase is a phrase which has for 
its base a verb in the participial mode; as, Mary, having 
finished her work, went home. 

A 'participial phrase consists of a participle with modi- 
fications. 

M9. Clause Element. 

Propositions are either prmeipcd or subordinate. 

A principal proposition is a proposition which 
makes sense by itself. 

A subordinate proposition is a proposition which 
does not make sense by itself, but is used as an element 
of the sentence. 

In the sentence, The boy who studies will improve. 
The hoy will improve makes sense by itself, hence it is 
a principal proposition; who studies is used as an 
adjective element to limit boy, hence it is a subordinate 
proposition. 

150. Classification of Sentences. 

A group of words which make complete sense is 
called a sentence. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 125 

Words make complete sense when they express a 
declaration, an interrogation, or a command. 

A sentence which expresses a declaration is called a 
declarative sentence; as, The way of evil doers is 
hard. 

A sentence which expresses an interrogation is 
called an interrogative sentence; as, Where were 
you yesterday? 

A sentence which expresses a command is called an 
imperative sentence; as, Study your lessons care- 
fully. Therefore, 

Sentences with respect to their meaning are of three 
kinds, declarative, interrogative, and imperative. 

A sentence must contain one principal proposition, 
and it may contain more than one. 

A sentence which contains but one proposition is a 
simple sentence ; as, The night was cold. 

A sentence which is composed of two or more prin- 
cipal propositions is a compound sentence; as, You 

must be careful, or you will not succeed. 

A sentence containing one or more subordinate pro- 
positions is a complex sentence; as, A pupil who is 
diligent will improve. Therefore, 

Sentences with respect to their form are of three 
kinds, simple, compound, and complex. 

The analysis of a sentence is the process of separat- 
ing it into its elements and describing the office of 
each. 



126 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

MODELS FOR DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES 
OF SENTENCES. 



151. Principal Elements. 

Subject /\ Predicate 
Subject / \ Predicate /\ 



Object 



A 



Subject / \ Verb | Complement 



152. Word and Phrase Adjuncts. 

Any word adjunct except 1 
the appositive J l g0Q I 

An appositive km S | 

A simple infinitive phrase.. | to run 
An infinitive with a com- 1 , , , 

plement J 1 t0 I be ' g °° d 

An infinitive with an ob 

ject ) 

A simple prepositional 

phrase 



j 1 to i see / \ him 



r I to | Spain 

Base of a participial or \ 

an absolute phrase J ' — aA mg g0De 

Participial phrase with 1 

complement J I eing 1 

Participial phrase with 1 A 

an object J watching / Y_ 



me 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 127 

153. Simple Sentences with Word Adjuncts. 

pupils /\ are singing 

I The I 



The pupils are singing. 

This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. Pupils 
is the subject, limited by the, an adjective. Are singing is the 
predicate. 

Questions. — Why is the expression a sentence? Why is it a simple 
sentence? Why is it a declarative sentence? Why is it an inter- 
rogative sentence? Why is the word pupils the subject? Ans. The 
word pupils is the subject, because it denotes that of which action 
is expressed. Why is are singing the predicate? 



A. 



William / \ ruled 



Norman | prudently 

1 the | 

William the Norman ruled prudently. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. William is 
the subject, limited by JSforman, an appositive, which is limited 
by the, an adjective. Ruled is the predicate, limited by pru- 
dently, an adverb. 

Questions. — Why is this expression a sentence? Why is it a 
simple sentence? Why is it a declarative sentence? Why is it an 
intransitive sentence? What is an appositive? Why is Norman 
an appositive? 

sister /\ has been | kind 

| Your | | very | 

Your sister has been very hind. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. Sistei* 
is the subject, limited by your, a possessive. Has been kind is 
the predicate ; of which has been is the verb, and kind, an ad- 
jective, is the complement, which is limited by very, an adverb. 

Questions. — Why is sister the subject? What is a possessive? 
Why is your a possessive? Why is has been kind the predicate? 
What is a complement? Why is kind the complement? 



128 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



you 



/ \ Will accept /\ gift 



my 



Will you accept my gift? 
This is a simple, interrogative, transitive sentence. You is 
the subject; will accept is the predicate ; and gift is the object, 
limited by my, a possessive. 

Questions. — Why is this an interrogative sentence? Why is it a 
transitive sentence? What is the object of a sentence? Why is 
gift the object. 

154. Simple Sentences with Phrase Adjuncts. 



|The 



A 



pastor / \ has gone 



of | church i t0 l Eur ° pe 



The pastor of our church has gone to Europe. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. Pastor 
is the subject, limited by the, an adjective, and by of our 
church, a prepositional phrase ; of which, of is the connective, 
and church is the base, limited by our, a possessive. Has gone 
is the predicate, limited by to Europe, a prepositional phrase ; 
of which to is the connective, and Europe is the base. 

Questions. — What is a phrase? What is a prepositional phrase? 
Why is of our church a prepositional phrase? What kind of a 
phrase is it in office? Ans. It is an adjective phrase. Why? Why 
is to Europe a prepositional phrase? What kind of a phrase is it in 
office? Ans. It is an adverbial phrase. Why? 

endeavor / \ will bring / \ reward 



Every 



to . do /\ right 



Every endeavor to do right will bring its own reward. 

This is a simple declarative, intransitive sentence. Endeavor 

is the subject, limited by every, an adjective, and by to do right, 

an infinitive phrase , of which, to is the connective, do is the 

base, and right is its object. Will bring is the predicate. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 129 

Reward is the object, limited by its, a possessive, and own, an 
adjective. 

Questions.— What is an infinitive phrase? Why is to do right an 
infinitive phrase ? 



I To . study 

I'diligentlylyA^ 



way 



to, improve 



To study diligently is the way to improve. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. To 
study diligently, an infinitive phrase, is the subject ; of which, 
to is the connective, study is the base, limited by diligently, 
an adverb. Is way is the predicate ; of which is is the verb, 
and way sl noun is the complement, which is limited by the, 
an adjective, and by to improve, an infinitive phrase ; of which. 
to is the connective, and improve is the base. 

bra nch / \ fell 



broken 



| by I wind" 

I the I 



The branch, broken by the wind, fell. 

This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. Branch 
is the subject, limited by the, an adjective, and by broken by 
the wind, a participial phrase ; of which broken is the base, 
limited by, by ijie wind, a prepositional phrase; of which by is 
the connective, and wind is the base, limited by the, an ad- 
jective. Fell is the predicate. 

Questions.— What is a participial phrase? Why is broken by the 
wind a participial phrase? 

army / \ was disbanded 

| the | | war 

]"The| being ended) 

The war being ended, the army was disbanded. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence. Army 
is the subject, limited by the, an adjective. Was disbanded 



130 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

is the predicate, limited v the war being ended, an absolute 
phrase; of which war is tnlTbase, limited by the, an adjective, 
and by being ended, a participle. 

155. Simple Sentences, having Compound Elements. 

John 



> 



aD d ^ are coming 

James 



John and James are coming. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence, having 
a compound subject. John and James, connected by the con- 
junction and, form the compound subject. Are coming is the 
predicate. mends 

nature /""" an( i ~"\ objects 



/"" and ~\ 

Ny beautifies / 



1 Good | \ beautifies / I a11 I 

Good nature mends and beautifies all objects. 
This is a simple, declarative, intransitive sentence, having 
a compound predicate. Nature is the subject, limited by good, 
an adjective. Mends and beautifies, connected by the con- 
junction and, form the compound predicate. Objects is the 
object, limited by all, an adjective. 

A history 

studies /"" and 

^\^ grammar 

She studies history and grammar. 
This is a simple declarative, intransitive sentence, having 
a compound object. She is the subject ; studies is the predi- 
cate ; and history and grammar, connected by the conjunction 
and, form the compound object. 



rational 



soul 



TThe 



A 



and 
immortal 



of, 



The soul of man is rational and immortal. 
This is a simple declarative, intransitive sentence, having 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 131 

a compound complement. Soul is the subject, limited by the, 
an adjective, and by of man, a prepositional phrase; of which, 
of is the connective, and man is the base. Is rational and 
immortal is the predicate; of which is is the verb, and ra- 
tional and immortal, adjectives, connected by the conjunction 
and, form the compound complement. 

156. Compound Sentences. 

will stay 



C and 



you / \ may go 

I will stay, and you may go. 

This is a compound sentence, containing two principal 
propositions. I will stay is the first proposition; J is the sub- 
ject; and will stay is the predicate. 

You may go is the second proposition. You is the subject; 
and may go is the predicate. And is the connective. 



Generations 


A\ 


have passed 




mourners 


(and 


| away | 

have sunk 
together 

1 in l 




and 
mourned 


>T 


forgetfulness 



Generations have passed away, and mourners and mourned have 
sunk together in forgetfulness. 

This is a compound sentence, containing two principal 
propositions. Generations have passed away is the first 
proposition. Generations is the subject; have passed is the 
predicate, limited by away, an adverb. 

Mourners and mourned have stink together in forgetfulness is 
the second proposition, having a compound subject. Mourn- 
ers and mourned, connected by the conjunction and form the 
compound subject. Have sunk is the predicate, limited by 



132 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

together, an adverb, and by in forgetfulness, a prepositional 
phrase ; of which, in is the connective, and forgetfulness is the 
base. And is the connective. 

knowledge / 1 \ may be | idle 
I Mere I I 



belief butj will — 

in | action 



""""N/"" 



love /\ must go 



| forth | 

Mere knowledge may be idle ; but belief and love will, and 
must, go forth in action. 

This is a compound sentence, containing two principal 
propositions. Mere knowledge may be idle is the first proposi- 
tion. Knowledge is the subject, limited by mere, an adjective. 
May be idle is the predicate ; of which, may be is the verb, 
and idle, an adjective, is the complement. 

Belief and love will, and must, go forth in action is the second 
proposition, having a compound subject and predicate. Belief 
and love, connected by the conjunction and form the com- 
pound subject. Will and must go, connected by the conjunc- 
tion and, form the compound predicate, which is limited by 
forth, an adverb, and by in action, an prepositional phrase; 
of which, in is the connective, and action is the base. But is 
the connective. 

157. Complex Sentences, having their Propositions 
joined by Connectives. 

This / \ is | tree 




the 



which / \ produces / \ fruit 



A 



no 



This is the tree which produces no fruit. 
This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition. This is the tree is the principal 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 133 

proposition. This is the subject ; is tree is the predicate ; of 
which is is the verb, and tree, a noun, is the complement, 
limited by the, an adjective. 

Which produces no fruit is the subordinate clause ; limit- 
ing tree, hence it is an adjective clause element. Which is the 
subject; produces is the predicate; and fruit is the object, 
limited by no, an adjective. 



A 



book / \ is lost 



The [ 

_I /\ read /\ story 



in j whi ch LiMJ 



The book in which I read that story is lost. 

This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition. The booh is lost is the principal 
proposition. Book is the subject, limited by the, an adjective; 
and is lost is the predicate. 

In which I read that story is the subordinate clause, limit- 
ing booh, hence it is an adjective clause element. I is the 
subject; read is the predicate, limited by in which, sl prepo- 
sitional phrase ; of which in is the connective, and which is 
the base. Story is the object, limited by that, an adjective. 



/ 


\ feec 


1 /\ him 


enemy 


fC 


hunger 


| thine | 







If thine enemy hunger, feed him. 

This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition. 

Feed him is the principal proposition. Thou, understood, 
is the subject ; feed is the predicate ; and him is the object. 

If thine enemy hunger is the subordinate proposition, liinit- 
12 



134 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

ing feed, hence it is an adverbial clause element. Enemy is 
the subject, limited by thine, a possessive. Hunger is the 
predicate. If is the connective. 

People /\ are | rude 

because , 

they /\ are | ignorant 

People are rude, because they are ignorant. 

This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition. People are rude is the principal 
proposition. People is the subject; are rude is the predicate; 
of which are is the verb, and rude, an adjective, is the com- 
plement. 

Because they are ignorant is the subordinate proposition, 
limiting rude, hence it is an adverbial clause element. They 
is the subject ; are ignorant is the predicate ; of which are is 
the verb, and ignorant, an adjective, is the complement. Be- 
cause is the connective. 

158. Complex Sentences, having their Propositions 
joined by Incorporation. 

Incorporation means that the subordinate proposition 
forms part of the principal proposition. 



/ \ comes A 



Whoever will be received 



kindly 



Whoever comes will be kindly received. 

This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition, joined by incorporation. IF7io- 
ever comes will be kindly received is the principal proposition. 
The substantive clause whoever comes is the subject. Will be 
received is the predicate, limited by kindly, an adverb. 

Whoever comes is the subordinate proposition, used as the 
subject of the principal proposition, hence it is a subject 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 135 

clause element. Wlioever is the subject; and comes is the pre- 
dicate. 

that 



St. 



A A God /\ is I love 
says / \ 



St. John says that God is love. 

This is a complex sentence containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition, joined by incorporation. St. 
John says that God is love is the principal proposition. St. 
John is the subject; says is the predicate; and the substantive 
clause that God is love is the object. 

That God is love is the subordinate proposition, used as the 
object of the verb says, hence it is an object clause element. 
God is the subject; is love is the predicate; of which is is the 
verb, and love, a noun, is the complement. That is a con- 
nective and introduces the subordinate clause. 



A 



that 

you / \ have been t unsuccessful 
I in I business 



I jour 1 



| The 

The rumor is that you have been unsuccessful in your business. 

This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition, joined by incorporation. The 
rumor %g that you have been unsuccessful in your business 
is the principal proposition. Rumor is the subject, limited 
by the, an adjective. Is tlmt you have been unsuccessful in your 
business is the predicate; of which is is the verb, and the 
clause that you have been unsuccessful in your business is the 
complement. 

That you have been unsuccessful in your business is the sub- 
ordinate proposition, used as the complement of is in the prin- 
cipal proposition, hence it is a predicate clause element ; You 
is the subject; have been unsuccessful is the predicate; of 



136 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

which have been is the verb, and unsuccessful, an adjective, is 
the complement, limited by in your business, a prepositional 
phrase ; of which in is the connective, and business is the base, 
limited by your, a possessive. That is a connective and intro- 
duces the subordinate clause. 



father 



His 



/ \ will be | responsible 



I he / \ says /\ what 
for 



His father will be responsible for what he says. 

This is a complex sentence, containing one principal and 
one subordinate proposition, joined by incorporation. His 
father will be responsible for what he says is the principal pro- 
position. Father is the subject, limited by his, a possessive. 
Will be responsible is the predicate ; of which will be is the 
verb, and responsible, an adjective, is the complement, limited 
by for what he says, a prepositional phrase ; of which, for is 
the connective, and the clause what he says is the base. 

What he says is the subordinate proposition used as the 
object of the preposition for, hence it is the base of a pre- 
positional phrase. He is the subject; says is the predicate; 
and what is the object. 

Diagram and Analyze the following. 

John studies. May I come ? Study carefully. Mary 
has spoken. My slate is broken. The old bird is sing- 
ing. Will your brother come ? Mr. Brown the painter 
has fallen. You must walk quickly. See the beau- 
tiful birds. She went away yesterday. The pupils 
have prepared their recitations very carefully. The 
boy has been kind. These are the tallest trees. Grant 
the president was seen. The dark clouds move. Run 
quickly. She writes a beautiful hand. Hear wisdom. 

They live in the city. They have not called to see 
me. The pupils of our school did it. It is the business 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 137 

of virtue to regulate the affections. Mary and Ellen 
go to school. The bird, hearing the noise, flew away. 
He is young and intelligent. He not obeying, the 
teacher was obliged to punish him. They study and 
recite well. Avoid questions and strife. 

We must study hard, or we will not> succeed. Mary 
may come with you, and you can show your new books 
to her. The boat which we saw has sailed. He will 
come again, if you wish it. That is the boy who will 
win the prize. Treat others as you wish to be treated. 
It was he who became my protector. I will work when 
he returns. We urged him to stay, because it was 
raining. This is the man of whom I spoke. 

159. Substantive Phrases and Clauses. 

A proposition used as part of a sentence is called a 
clause. 

A clause which is used as a noun is called a substan- 
tive clause. 

A substantive clause may be, — 

1. The subject of a verb; as, That man is mortal is not 
doubted. 

2. The predicate nominative; as, His merit was that 
he hated falsehood. 

3. The object of a verb; as, He said that man is 
mortal. 

4. The object of a preposition; as, He spoke of what 
the man said. 

A phrase used as a noun is called a substantive 
phrase. 

A substantive phrase may be, — 

1. The subject of a verb: as, To speak the truth Es a 
virtue. 

12* 



138 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. Tlie predicate nominative; as, They are to be re- 
warded. 

3. The object of a verb; as, Learn to do well. 

160. Models for parsing: substantive phrases and clauses. 

He studies what is useful. 
What is useful is a substantive clause; of the neuter 
gender, third person, singular number, and in the objective 
case, being the object of the verb studies; Rule IV. 

What is a pronoun, relative ; of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number, to agree with its substantive 
understood; Rule VIII. What is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb is; Rule I. 

Towards the earth's centre is down. 

Towards the earth's centre is a substantive phrase; 
of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, and 
in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb is; 
Rule I. 

Towards is a preposition, and introduces the substantive 
phrase, Towards the earth's centre. 

Is is a verb, irregular, intransitive ; in the indicative mode, 
present tense; and of the third person, singular number, to 
agree with its subject, the phrase, Towards the earth's centre; 
Rule IX. 

Diagram and Analyze the following, and Parse all the words; the substantive 
expression to ho parsed before the words it contains. 

My sister said that you were coming. Where he 
lives cannot be ascertained. To love your enemies is 
commanded in the gospel. The wonder is w r hy he came. 
To practice industry is to insure success. My wdsh is 
that you may improve rapidly. Take whatever is 
offered. Most men love to be called great. Up a river 
is towards its source. He meditates upon what is 
profitable. To enjoy the confidence of mankind is a 



RULES FOR CAPITALS. 139 

praiseworthy desire. Much depends on who the men 
are. That the earth is a sphere can easily be proved. 
Give it to whoever comes. Do you know which went? 

161. Rules for Capitals. 

1. The words Zand should be written in capitals ; 
as, Mary, how I wish to see you. 

2. The first word of every distinct sentence should 
begin with a capital ; as, My slate is broken. Where 
are my books? Listen to me. 

3. The first word of every line of poetry should begin 
with a capital ; as, 

Our free flag is dancing, 
And burnished arms glancing. 

4. The first word of a direct quotation should begin 
with a capital ; as, He said, " You must either conquer 
or die." 

5. All the names of the Deny should begin with 
capitals; as, Our Father in heaven; God; Blessed 
Savior. 

6. All proper names and words derived from proper 
names should begin with capitals ; as, Rome ; a Roman 
soldier; America; the American flag. 

7. The principal words in the titles of books or dis- 
courses should begin with capitals; as, Goldsmith's 
History of England. The Sights of California, 

8. Titles of honor and respect should begin with 
capitals; as, His Excellency the President; Her Ma- 
jesty; Your Honor. 

162. Models for Exercise. 

Did I meet you at Pari*? 
Did begins with a capital, because it is the first word of 
a sentence. 



140 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

I is a capital, because it is the word I. 

Paris begins with a capital, because it is a proper name. 

Tell why each capital is used in the following sentences. 

We use Osgood's Readers. My sister lives in Vir- 
ginia. The subject of his lecture was, "What I saw in 
Egypt." Where are England and Scotland? John, 
what have you done ? Henry Clay was an American 
statesman. Washington is the capital of the United 
States. We worship the Supreme Being. The Bostonia 
sailed from Liverpool on Wednesday. He reasoned 
out of the Scriptures. Milton, the great English poet, 
was blind. The Christian thus sees his God in mild 
majesty. Have you read Macaulay's Historical Essays? 
The poet says, " Be wise to day." 

Through every age, Eternal God, 
Thou art our rest, our safe abode. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

Incorrect expressions given to be corrected are called 
false syntax. 

Obs.— The following rules are to be used for correcting improper 
expressions, and not in parsing; they are not the Rules of Syntax. 

163. Rule First. 

Substantives in the nominative case should have 
the proper nominative form. 

A substantive is in the nominative case, — 

1st. When it is the subject of a finite verb. 
2d. When it is after an intransitive or a passive verb, and 
denotes the same thing as the subject. 

3d. When it is in apposition with a nominative. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 141 

Obs. — This rule applies more especially to pronouns, as it is in 
using them that it is most frequently violated. 

Models for Exercise. 
Mary and him study. 
The expression is incorrect; it should be, Mary and he 
study. The substantive him has the objective form, and it 
should have the nominative form, because it is in the nomi- 
native case, being one of the subjects of the finite verb study. 
{Repeat Rule 1st.) 

It was them. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, It was they. The 
substantive them has the objective form, and it should have 
the nominative form, because it is in the nominative case 
after the intransitive verb was; — Rule 1st. 

It was John, him that wrote to you. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, It was John, he 
that wrote to you. The substantive him has the objective 
form, and it should have the nominative form, because it is 
in the nominative case by apposition with the noun John; — 
Rule 1st. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

May him and me go with you ? The boys and us 
saw him. They know more than me. Her and you 
will finish the work. It must have been her. Did she 
say that it was me ? I am sure that it was him. It 
may have been Ellen, her whom you admired. Her 
and me write well. Sarah saw it as well as us. Them 
are my books, and it was him that took them. What 
are Henry and them doing ? Lincoln the statesman, 
him whom we all respected, is dead. It was her that 
did it, and not me. Whom do you think they are ? 
Mary is more diligent than us. It is my cousin, her 
that visited the school. It was William, and him 
alone, who built the fence. Who opened the door? 
Me. I can write faster than him. 



142 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

164. Rule Second. 

A substantive in the absolute case should have the 
same form as the nominative case. 

Model for Exercise. 

Him being seen, they fled. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, He being seen, 
they fled ; the substantive him has the objective form, and it 
should have the nominative form, because it is in the abso- 
lute case before the participle being seen; — Rule 2d. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

My having refused to go, she went alone. Us being 
with him, he remained quiet. Him being an only son, 
his father indulged him. Its being me caused him to 
look surprised. Are you quite sure of its being her ? 
Oh, happy him! who has such advantages. 

Before studying the following, let the pupil review the article on the possessive 
case on page 44. 

165. Rule Third. 

Substantives in the possessive case should have the 
proper possessive form. 

Models for Exercise. 

This is your fathers house. 
The expression is incorrect; it should be, This is your 
father's house ; the noun father's is in the possessive case and 
should have the sign between r and s; — Rule 3d. 

We heard of him going. 

The expression is incorrect ; it should be, We heard of his 
going; the substantive him has the objective form, and it 
should have the possessive form, because it is in the posses- 
sive case to the verbal noun going; — Rule 3d. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 143 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

We use Deans Arithmetics. You have torn the 
ladys dress. We saw an eagles nest. I have spoken 
of you talking so constantly. We did not think of 
John knowing your hiding-place. My mother is 
opposed to me going with you. 

Boys shoes are sold at Smiths. It must be James 
hat. It may be tier's, but I am sure it is not his' book. 
I have been using anothers book. Did you know of 
him falling ? He knew the knife by it's handle. Where 
are the boys sleds ? The horse belongs to Charles brother. 

165. Kule Fourth. 

A substantive in the objective case should have the 
proper objective form. 

A substantive is in the objective case : — 

1st. When it is the object of a transitive verb ; as, William 
saw me. 

2d. When it is the object of a preposition ; as, William 
spoke to me. 

3d. When it is in apposition with another substantive in 
the objective case ; as, Did you see James, him who lives on 
the hill ? 

Models for Exercise. 

They know John and I. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, They know John 
and me; the pronoun / has the nominative form, and it 
should have the objective form, because it is in the objective 
case, being one of the objects of the verb know;— Rule 4th. 

Who did he speak to ? 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, To whom did he 
speak? the pronoun who has the nominative form, and it 
should have the objective form, because it is in the objective 
ease, being the object of the preposition to; — Rule 4th. 



144 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

Did you see Mary and I ? I asked you and he to 
visit my sister and I. Who do you want? There 
should be no secrets between you and she. Who did 
you give that book to? I saw Henry Smith, he whom 
you thought lost. It is to be given to the boy, he who 
acted so generously. We honor the brave men, they, 
who fought for liberty. 

Will you allow him and I to see your garden ? Be 
careful who you tell that to. Who did you meet? 
She is angry with you and I. Tell me who I must 
obey. Let us worship God, he who made all things. 

166. Rule Fifth. 

The pronoun should have the same gender, person, 
and number as Us substantive. 

Exception.— When the substantive is common gender, singu- 
lar, the 'pronoun should be masculine singular; as, Let every 
one do his duty; not, Let every one do their duty. 

Models for Exercise. 

The crowd continued to increase until they numbered many 
thousands. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, The crowd con- 
tinued to increase until it numbered many thousands; the 
pronoun they is common gender, plural number, and it should 
be neuter, singular, because its substantive crowd is neuter, 
singular ; — Rule 5th. 

Each member of the class may bring their book. 

The expression is incorrect; it should be, Each member of 
the class may bring his book ; the pronoun their is common, 
plural, and it should be masculine, singular, because its sub- 
stantive member is common, singular ; — {Repeat Exception.) 



FALSE SYNTAX. 145 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

The court in their wisdom condemned him. He 
has great riches and it may yet be his ruin. Every 
pupil should endeavor to do their best. One cannot 
be too careful of their reputation. The battle cost the 
army many of their best officers. 

You may use the tongs, but be sure to return it. 
The news of the accident was told to her, and upon 
hearing them she started. The tree beareth fruit after 
his kind. Every flower shows the wisdom of Him who 
made them. 

167. Rule Sixth. 

The word what should not be used instead of the 
conjunction that. 

Model for Exercise. 

I would not say but what you are right. 
This expression is incorrect ; it should be, I would not say 
but that you are right ; — Rule 6th. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

We had no idea but what you were truthful. She 
will not believe but what you are to blame in the 
matter. They had no doubt but what he would return. 
I do not know but what the work is already done. 

168. Rule Seventh. 

The relative who is applied to persons, and the 
relative which, to things and brutes. 

Exception. — In interrogative sentences ivhich may be applied 
to persons. 

Model for Exercise. 

The lady which you saw here has gone. 
The expression is incorrect; it should be, The lady whom 
you saw here has gone ; since the antecedent lady denotes a 
person, who should be used and not which; — Rule 7th. 
K 13 



146 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors in the folloiring examples. 

The persons which committed the deed have fled. 
The nation who has a good ruler is happy. He fed 
the crowds who surrounded him. The tiger is a beast 
of prey who is to be dreaded. He is a friend which 
can be relied upon. They which are rich should help 
the poor. I allowed the horse who knows the way 
perfectly to guide me. Blessed is the man which 
walketh in wisdom's way. 

169. Rule Eighth. 

The singular form of the verb is used with all sub- 
jects in the singular number except I and you. 

The plural form of the verb is used with all sub- 
jects in the plural number and with I and you. 

Exceptions.— Is?. The pronoun thou requires a verb of the 
grave style; as, Thou leamest. Thou art he. Thou hast 
seen my cottage. 

2d. In using the verb be in the present tense the pronoun I 
requires the form am; as, I am certain of it I am going 
away. 

Obs.— Rule 8th applies to finite verbs only. 

Models for Exercise. 

One of the persons were found guilty. 
This expression is incorrect; it should be. One of the per- 
sons was found guilty ; were found is of the plural form, and 
it should be of the singular form, because its subject one is 
of the singular number ; — Rule 7th. 

Where was you going ? 
This expression is incorrect; it should be, Where were you 
going? Was going has the singular form, and it should have 
the plural form, because its subject you always requires a 
verb of the plural form ; — Rule 8th. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 147 

Correct the errors in the following. 

Six hours' work are required of you. Neither of the 
answers are correct. The court have not decided. The 
number of tardy pupils are increasing. A long train 
of cars have just passed. Was you at school to-day ? 
There is more than two pupils who have been idle. 

No pains has been spared to make him intelligent. 
A great variety of books were scattered over the tables. 
A crowd of men were soon on the spot. One of the 
boys who was in the party still insist in declaring his 
innocence. No tidings of the lost child has been re- 
ceived. What was you doing during our absence? To 
all who desires it, the ticket will be issued. There 
seems to be no others coming. He is not the first that 
have disobeyed the instructions. 

170. Rule Ninth. 

Subjects connected by mid, expressed or under- 
stood, require the plural form of the verb and pro- 
noun to agree with them. 

Model for Exercise. 

The father and the son has been distinguished for his talents. 

This expression is incorrect; it should be, The father and 
the son have been distinguished for their talents; has been 
has the singular form, and it should have the plural form, 
because its subjects, father and son, are connected by and. 

His is of the singular number, and it should be of the plural 
number, because its substantives father and son are connected 
by and ; Rule 9th. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

His politeness and truthfulness is quite remarkable. 
Charles and Henry is studying his lessons. The teacher 
and the pupil were busy at her work. There is a force 



148 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

and a beauty in his writing that is quite enchanting. 
The past tense and the perfect participle ends in ed. 
The mother and her child was drowned. Was the 
house and lot sold to day? We have no reason to 
think that the lawyer and his client were using his 
effort to defeat his own side. 



171. Rule Tenth. 

Subjects connected by or and nor, expressed or un- 
derstood, require the singular form of the verb and 
pronoun to agree with them. 

Model for Exercise. 

Jane or her sister have come. 
This expression is incorrect; it should be, Jane or her 
sister has come; have come has the plural form, and it should 
have the singular form, because its subjects Jane and sister 
are connected by or; Rule 10th. 

Either James or William has neglected what was told them. 
This expression is incorrect ; it should be, Either James or 
William has neglected what was told him; them is of the 
plural number, and it should be of the singular . number, 
because its substantives James and William are connected by 
or; Rule 10th. 

Correct the errors in the following. 

Henry or his brother are staying to watch him. 
Have William or his father gone to the city. Neither 
the boy nor his clothing are in the room. Man's hap- 
piness or misery depend on his own exertions. Either 
his intellect or his heart wavered from their allegiance 
to right. Either Mary or her sister are to blame for 
this neglect of their duty. If thy hand or thy foot 
should offend thee, cut them off. Neither talent nor 
inclination were wanting. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 149 

172. Rule Eleventh. 

The form of the perfect participle, and not the 
form of the past tense, is used with the auxiliaries 
have and be. 

Models for Exercise. 

John has took my knife. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, John has taken 
my knife ; took has the form of the past tense, and it should 
be the perfect participle, because it follows a form of the 
auxiliary verb have; Rule 11th. 

My hands are nearly froze. 
The expression is incorrect; it should be, My hands are 
nearly frozen ; froze has the form of the past tense, and it 
should be of the perfect participle, because it follows one 
form of the auxiliary verb be; Rule 11th. 

Correct the errors in the follomng. 

The letter is wrote. The tree was shook by the wind. 
He has ran a mile. Is your pencil broke? He must 
have went before you were ready. This is the fourth 
time I have spoke to you. I have often saw him going 
there. We ought to have drove faster. My book is 
nearly wore out. He has been showed that several 
times. This is the place he must have fell. 

173. Rule Twelfth. 

The form of the perfect participle should not be 
used for the past tense. 

Model for Exercise. 

She run all the way to school. 

The expression is incorrect ; it should be, She ran all the 

way to school ; run has the form of the perfect participle, 

and it should not be used when the past tense is required. 

Rule 12th. 

13* 



150 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

He begun to study. They done what I told them not 
to do. We all seen him waiting for you. He drunk 
at the spring on the hillside. They seen him. 

Obs. Rules 11th and 12th apply only to irregular verbs, 
the past tense and perfect participle of regular verbs have the 
same form. 

174. Rule Thirteenth. 

The transitive verb lay should not be used for the 
intransitive verb lie. 

Iiay means to place. Iiie means to rest horizontally. 

Model. — Your book lays on the table. 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, Your book lies 
on the table; the transitive verb lay which means to place, 
should not be used for the intransitive verb lie, which means 
to rest horizontally; Rule 13th. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

It laid there a few moments ago. He lays at rest in 
the old churchyard. They laid down to rest. After 
laying there for some time, he rose up. He must have 
laid on the ground all night. I have lain the package 
on your table. The tree has been laying there several 
days. The shower has lain the dust. 



175. Rule Fourteenth. 

The transitive verb set should not be used for the 
intransitive verb sit. 

Set means to put. Sit means to be seated. 

Model. — May I set beside him ? 
The expression is incorrect ; it should be, May I sit beside 



FALSE SYNTAX. 151 

him ? The transitive verb set which means to put should not 
be used for the intransitive verb sit which means to be seated ; 
Rule 14th. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

You may set there. You must not set up late. 
Walk in and set down. It happened while we were 
setting around the fire. I have been setting alone all 
day. Sit a chair for him to set upon. 

176. Rule Fifteenth. 

The transitive verb raise should not be used for the 
intransitive verb rise. 

Raise means to elevate. Rise means to get up. 

Model. — They shall raise from their slumbers. 

The expression is incorrect ; it should be, They shall rise 
from their slumbers ; the transitive verb raise which means 
to elevate should not be used for the intransitive verb rise, 
which means to get up ; Rule 15th. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

The price of wheat has raised. The kite raised above 
the chimney tops. The river is raising. Is the bread 
•raising. 

177. Rule Sixteenth. 

In using the articles, a is placed before words com- 
mencing with a consonant sound, and an before 
words commenciivg with a vowel sound. 

Model. — This is a apple tree. 

The expression is incorrect; it should be, This is an apple 
tree ; an, and not a, should be used before the word apple, 
because it commences with a vowel sound: Rule 16th. 



152 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

John is a idle boy. Is he a honest man ? I bought 
him an useful book. He must be a enemy to the 
system. Let us buy a orange. We will stay just a 
hour. Mary finished an hard example. It was not a 
honorable deed. 

178. Rule Seventeenth. 

When a plural adjective is used, the substantive to 
which it relates must also be plural. 

Model. — I paid four shilling for six pound of sugar. 

The expression is incorrect; it should be, I paid four 
shillings for six pounds of sugar; shilling is singular, and it 
should be plural, because the adjective four is plural ; pound 
is singular, and it should be plural, because the adjective six 
is plural ; Rule 17th. 

Correct the errors in the following. 

The lot is forty foot wide. I am just twelve year 
old. Ten pound will cost two dollars. He sold three 
pair of shoes. I cut four cord of wood. It must have 
cost? a hundred pound. 

179. Rule Eighteenth. 

An adjective should be so placed as to limit the 
term intended. 

Model. — I had a ripe basket of fruit. 

This expression is incorrect; it should be, I had a basket 
of ripe fruit ; ripe relates to fruit, and should be placed next 
to it ; Rule 18th. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

My uncle bought a new span of horses. I received 
a beautiful pair of gloves from her. What did you buy 
with those two last cents ? This is a fine piece of goods. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 153 

We sat down by a clear spring of water. Bring me a 
cool glass of water. He has a new pair of shoes. 

* 180. Rule Nineteenth. 

When an adjective is required, the proper adjective 
form should he used. 

Examples. 

{The weather feels warm. She looks cold. It 
seems to be correct. 
( The weather feels warmly. She looks coldly. It 
\ seems to be correctly. 



Correct, 
Incorrect, 



Correct the errors in the following examples. 

We arrived safely. Open the door widely. Velvet 
and satin feel smoothly. The apples taste sweetly. The 
moon is shining less brightly than last night. She 
must feel strangely so far away from her home. I 
think they felt happily. 

181. Rule Twentieth. 

When an adverb is required, the proper adverbial 
form should be used. 

Many adverbs are made from adjectives by adding the 
suffix ly ; as, slowly from sloiv; wretchedly from wretched. 

Examples. 

fHe reads fluently. The writing is remarkably 
Correct. 



! 



good. He writes very well. 

r 



fHe reads fluent. The writing is remarkable 
Incorrect, < ' & 

good. He writes very good. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

My head pains very bad. She writes good and plain. 
Is your work near done? This is a remarkable clear 
night. You must speak more distinct. I can finish 



154 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

the work easier than you can. He has been recom- 
mended very high. He can do the work easy enough. 

182. Rule Twenty-first. § 

Improper or vulgar words should not be used. 
Examples. 

(Will you get me a drink? I knew that he 
Correct. \ .... * 

\ did it. 

(Will you git me a drink? I biowed that he 
Incorrect.^ .... 

( did it. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

He throwed a ball to me. She has got to go. The 
girls said it theirselves. Mary haint brought the pen- 
cils. He did it hisself. I aint willing to stay. You 
knowed I was going to-day. 

183. Rule Twenty-second. 

Superfluous words should not be used. 
Examples. 

(This book is new. You ought not to say 
Correct. \ - & j 

\ that. 

(This here book is new. You had not ought to 
Incorrect. < ,. 

( say that. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

We saw her a coming. I asked her for to lend it to 
me. There was no person else but Mary in the room. 
I do not like that there new pupil. Compare the two 
together. Where did you see it at ? I wish you had 
have known her. Mary she went, but I staid with 
mother. Tell it over again. Columbus first discovered 
America. The time will pass more quickly than you 
think for. Where have you been at ? 



f He has fled from his native land. This is the 
Correct, 



PUNCTUATION. 155 

184. Rule Twenty-third. 

Words necessary to the sense should not be omitted. 
Examples. 

\ way in which you must do it. 

(He has fled his native land. This is the way 
Incorrect. < , , ., 

[ you must do it. 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

The book was given me yesterday. She loves who 
loves her. "What use will it be to me? Yonder is the 
place I saw him. He was a person had no influence. 

185. Rule Twenty-fourth. 

Words should not be used in a sense different from 
their true meaning. 

I must teach him differently. We intended to 
go with him. I think he will come, 
must learn him differently. We calc 
go with him. I guess he will come. 



Correct. < 



go with him. I think he will come. 
Incorrect. < 



must learn him differently. We calculated to 
go with him. I guess he will coi 

Correct the errors in the following examples. 

Leave that window down. School is left out an 
hour ago. I expect it rained here yesterday. I sus- 
pect that I will make a handsome profit on it. He is 
stopping with his uncle now. I have seldom heard 
such a pleasant speaker. Try if that will fit. I live 
to home. Let me fix your books. I reckon so. 

186. Of Punctuation. 

The art of dividing written composition by means 
of points is called punctuation. 

The characters used for this purpose are called punc- 
tuation points. 



156 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The principal punctuation points are six ; viz. : — 

The Period, ( . ) The Colon, ( : ) 

The Interrogation, (?) The Semicolon, ( ; ) 
The Exclamation, (!) The Comma, ( , ) 

187. Rules for the use of the Period. 

1. Each complete, declarative and imperative sen- 
tence should be followed by a period. 

Ex. — The sun has set. Listen to the jingle of the bells. 
Strive to do well. 

2. Each elliptical expression, such as the title of a 
book or discourse, the heading of a page or chapter, 
should be followed by a period. 

Ex. — Dean's Primary Arithmetic. The Customs of the 
Orientals. Orthography. Chapter 25th. Lesson 4th. 

3. Each abbreviated word and each initial letter 
should be followed by a period. 

Ex.— Dr. Esq. Prof. J. G. Smith, N. Y. 

# 

188. Rule for the Interrogation Point. 

1. Each complete interrogative sentence should be 
followed by an interrogation point. 

Ex. — Why must you go ? Who will be my guide ? Which 
army retreated? 

189. Rule for the Exclamation Point. 

1. Each exclamatory word, phrase, and sentence 
should be followed by an exclamation point. 

Ex. — Indeed ! How foolish ! How are the mighty fallen ! 

Tell why punctuation points are used in the following examples. 

The nation is conquered. Come with us. Jno. R. 
Davison. Go past the house. Will you go with us ? 



PUNCTUATION. 157 

The mind is that which thinks. Hark ! it is music ! 
Are the wicked happy? We met S. B. Holmes, Jr. 
What a beautiful sight is sunrise ! sons of men ! 
listen to the voice of Wisdom ! Last year's report was 
incorrect. Go as quickly as you can. 

190. Rule for the use of the Colou. 

Such expressions as thus, following, and as follows, 
when they refer to something coming after, should be 
followed by the colon. 

Ex. — He addressed his schoolmates thus : Friends of my 
I oyhood, &c. The paper read as follows : That in the re- 
signation, &c. 

191. Rules for the use of the Semicolon. 

1. In compound and complex sentences, when one 
clause is complete in itself, and a second clause is added 
for the purpose of explanation or contrast, they should 
be separated by the semicolon. 

Ex. — Tell me not of the laurels of the conqueror ; they are 
crimsoned with blood. Nothing delights some persons ; others 
are easily pleased. 

2. When the expression as, viz., namely, to wit, i. e., 
and that is, precede an example or a specification of 
particulars, they should be preceded by the semicolon. 

Ex. — There are two general classes of nouns ; viz., proper 
and common. 

192. Rules for the use of the Comma. 

1. Two words in the same construction, without a 
connective are separated by the comma. 

Ex. — He is a wise, prudent man. Lend, lend your wings. 

14 



158 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. Three or more words or phrases in the same con- 
struction are separated by commas. 

Ex. — John, James, and Henry have finished their course. 
They looked with contempt on the rich, on the eloquent, on 
the noble, and on the beautiful. 

3. The object of direct address is set off by the 
comma. 

Ex. — Mary, you have my permission to go. And now, 
friends of my youth, I must bid you adieu. 

4. The appositive, when compound or limited by 
other words than the article, is set off by the comma. 

Ex. — William, the conqueror of England, was a Norman. 
My sisters, Mary and Ellen, will stay with us. 

5. Absolute and participial phrases are set off by the 
comma. 

Ex. — His father having died, he became very wayward. 
Exhausted by fatigue, she could go no farther. 

6. An ellipsis of the predicate is marked by the 
comma. 

Ex. — Mary spoke to me, and Fred, to you. The young are 
slaves to novelty ; the old, to custom. 

7. The propositions which form a compound sen- 
tence are separated by the comma. 

Ex. — Hear instruction, and be wise. Brutus loved Caesar 
much, but he loved Eome more. 

8. The propositions which form complex sentences 
are generally separated by the comma. 

Ex. — Of what use is the study of grammar, unless it 
enables us to speak correctly. He was successful, because he 
was prudent. 



PUNCTUATION. 159 

Exceptions to Rule 8. 

A clause is not pointed off — 

1st. When it is a substantive clause. 

Ex. — When he will come is uncertain. I heard what he 
said. His chief merit was that he was truthful. 

2d. When it is a relative clause joined directly to 
its antecedent. 

Ex. — The boy who studies will improve. He that is 
diligent will be successful. Happy are the people whose 
history is the most wearisome to read. 

3d. When it denotes comparison, and follows as or 
than. 

Ex. — He was a better scholar than I supposed him to be. 
She is not so amiable as her sister. 

4th. When it is a short adverbial clause, closely con- 
nected. 

Ex. — I will go when he returns. Where thou goest I 
will go. 

Tell why the punctuation points are used by the following examples. 

He heard a still, small voice. John, James, and 
William are industrious, careful pupils. A boy, run- 
ning this way, called, "Fire!" Go to Dr. Jas. B. Wood- 
ward. To confess the truth, I had forgotten about it. 
Mary has won the cup, and Ellen is generous enough 
to be pleased with the result. Our aim is higher, purer, 
nobler. He is a son of Clay, the great American states- 
man. The branches taught are as follows : Arithmetic, 
Orthography, German, &c. Ah! now I see plainly! 
Children, listen to what I say. The boys seeing the 
danger, the men were compelled to act. Froude, the 
great historian of England, visited the United St a fces. 



160 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Examples for Analysis and Parsing. 

My sister Mary was hurt yesterday. Your eldest brother 
was present. He is vicious and indolent. I am fully con- 
vinced that you are wrong. What sighs have been wafted 
after that ship ! The region beyond the grave is not a solitary 
land. My father having gone, we were left alone. I marked 
the Spring with her eye of light and her lip of song. Cul- 
tivate your intellectual powers by habits of study. The birds 
are asleep, and the world has gone to its rest. Do not act, if 
you have any doubts in the matter. Whatever breathes 
lives. To rule one's anger is well, but to prevent it is better. 

They who have shared our griefs are dear to us. Thou 
hast left no son, but song shall preserve thy name. I am not 
in any way responsible for what he says. To acquire know- 
ledge is pleasant employment in every period of life. Hith- 
erto shalt thou come, and here shall thy proud waves be 
stayed. • Receiving goods known to be stolen is a criminal 
offence. The music was soft as the gentle zephyr. For him, 
for me, the earth in beauty smiles. The general, wise in his 
own conceit, refused to listen to advice. It is mind that does 
the work of the world. 

The same heavens are -9ver your heads, the same ocean 
rolls at your feet; but all else is changed. Relics \vhich had 
been found in Egypt were now exhibited. Yet a few days, 
and thee, the all beholding sun shall see no more in all his 
course. Continued practice in solving problems has made 
him quite expert in all mathematical operations. Moral 
sentiment is the feeling of what ought to be. 

It is pleasant tc be virtuous and good, because that is to 
excel many others; it is -pleasant to grow better, because 
that is to excel ourselves ; it is pleasant to mortify and 
subdue our lusts, because that is victory; it is pleasant to 
command our appetites and passions, and to keep them in 
due order within the bounds of reason and religion, because 
that is empire. 









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